['', ' = Robert <unk> = \n', '', ' Robert <unk> is an English film , television and theatre actor . He had a guest @-@ starring role on the television series The Bill in 2000 . This was followed by a starring role in the play Herons written by Simon Stephens , which was performed in 2001 at the Royal Court Theatre . He had a guest role in the television series Judge John <unk> in 2002 . In 2004 <unk> landed a role as " Craig " in the episode " Teddy \'s Story " of the television series The Long Firm ; he starred alongside actors Mark Strong and Derek Jacobi . He was cast in the 2005 theatre productions of the Philip Ridley play Mercury Fur , which was performed at the Drum Theatre in Plymouth and the <unk> <unk> Factory in London . He was directed by John <unk> and starred alongside Ben <unk> , Shane <unk> , Harry Kent , Fraser <unk> , Sophie Stanton and Dominic Hall . \n', ' In 2006 , <unk> starred alongside <unk> in the play <unk> written by Mark <unk> . He appeared on a 2006 episode of the television series , Doctors , followed by a role in the 2007 theatre production of How to Curse directed by <unk> <unk> . How to Curse was performed at Bush Theatre in the London Borough of <unk> and Fulham . <unk> starred in two films in 2008 , <unk> <unk> by filmmaker Paris <unk> , and <unk> Punch directed by <unk> Blackburn . In May 2008 , <unk> made a guest appearance on a two @-@ part episode arc of the television series Waking the Dead , followed by an appearance on the television series <unk> in November 2008 . He had a recurring role in ten episodes of the television series <unk> in 2010 , as " <unk> Fletcher " . <unk> starred in the 2011 film <unk> directed by Paris <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Career = = \n', '', '', ' = = = 2000 – 2005 = = = \n', '', ' In 2000 <unk> had a guest @-@ starring role on the television series The Bill ; he portrayed " Scott Parry " in the episode , " In Safe Hands " . <unk> starred as " Scott " in the play Herons written by Simon Stephens , which was performed in 2001 at the Royal Court Theatre . A review of <unk> \'s performance in The Independent on Sunday described him as " horribly menacing " in the role , and he received critical reviews in The Herald , and Evening Standard . He appeared in the television series Judge John <unk> in 2002 as " <unk> <unk> " in the episode " Political <unk> " , and had a role as a different character " Toby Steele " on The Bill . \n', ' He had a recurring role in 2003 on two episodes of The Bill , as character " Connor Price " . In 2004 <unk> landed a role as " Craig " in the episode " Teddy \'s Story " of the television series The Long Firm ; he starred alongside actors Mark Strong and Derek Jacobi . <unk> starred as " Darren " , in the 2005 theatre productions of the Philip Ridley play Mercury Fur . It was performed at the Drum Theatre in Plymouth , and the <unk> <unk> Factory in London . He was directed by John <unk> and starred alongside Ben <unk> , Shane <unk> , Harry Kent , Fraser <unk> , Sophie Stanton and Dominic Hall . <unk> received a favorable review in The Daily Telegraph : " The acting is <unk> intense , with <unk> performances from Ben <unk> ( now <unk> from his performance as Trevor <unk> \'s Hamlet ) , Robert <unk> , Shane <unk> and Fraser <unk> . " The Guardian noted , " Ben <unk> and Robert <unk> offer <unk> amid the <unk> . " \n', '', ' = = = 2006 – present = = = \n', '', ' In 2006 <unk> starred in the play <unk> written by Mark <unk> . The play was part of a series which featured different <unk> , titled Burn / <unk> / <unk> . In a 2006 interview , fellow actor Ben <unk> identified <unk> as one of his favorite co @-@ stars : " I loved working with a guy called Robert <unk> , who was in the triple bill of Burn , <unk> and <unk> at the National . He played my brother in Mercury Fur . " He portrayed " Jason Tyler " on the 2006 episode of the television series , Doctors , titled " Something I <unk> " . <unk> starred as " William " in the 2007 production of How to Curse directed by <unk> <unk> . How to Curse was performed at Bush Theatre in the London Borough of <unk> and Fulham . In a review of the production for The Daily Telegraph , theatre critic Charles Spencer noted , " Robert <unk> brings a touching vulnerability to the stage as William . " \n', ' <unk> starred in two films in 2008 , <unk> <unk> by filmmaker Paris <unk> , and <unk> Punch directed by <unk> Blackburn . <unk> portrayed a character named " Sean " in <unk> Punch , who <unk> along with character " Josh " as the " quiet brother ... who hits it off with <unk> " . <unk> guest starred on a two @-@ part episode arc " <unk> " in May 2008 of the television series Waking the Dead as character " Jimmy <unk> " . He appeared on the television series <unk> as " Neil " in November 2008 . He had a recurring role in ten episodes of the television series <unk> in 2010 , as " <unk> Fletcher " . He portrayed an emergency physician applying for a medical <unk> . He commented on the inherent difficulties in portraying a physician on television : " Playing a doctor is a strange experience . <unk> you know what you \'re talking about when you don \'t is very bizarre but there are advisers on set who are fantastic at taking you through procedures and giving you the confidence to stand there and look like you know what you \'re doing . " <unk> starred in the 2011 film <unk> directed by Paris <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Filmography = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Film = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Television = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Theatre = = = \n', '', '', '', ' = Du Fu = \n', '', ' Du Fu ( Wade – Giles : Tu Fu ; Chinese : <unk> ; <unk> – 770 ) was a prominent Chinese poet of the Tang dynasty . Along with Li <unk> ( Li Po ) , he is frequently called the greatest of the Chinese poets . His greatest ambition was to serve his country as a successful civil servant , but he proved unable to make the necessary accommodations . His life , like the whole country , was devastated by the An <unk> Rebellion of <unk> , and his last 15 years were a time of almost constant unrest . \n', ' Although initially he was little @-@ known to other writers , his works came to be hugely influential in both Chinese and Japanese literary culture . Of his poetic writing , nearly fifteen hundred poems have been preserved over the ages . He has been called the " Poet @-@ Historian " and the " Poet @-@ Sage " by Chinese critics , while the range of his work has allowed him to be introduced to Western readers as " the Chinese Virgil , Horace , <unk> , Shakespeare , Milton , Burns , <unk> , <unk> , Hugo or <unk> " . \n', '', ' = = Life = = \n', '', ' Traditional Chinese literary criticism emphasized the life of the author when interpreting a work , a practice which Burton Watson attributes to " the close links that traditional Chinese thought posits between art and morality " . Since many of Du Fu \'s poems feature morality and history , this practice is particularly important . Another reason , identified by the Chinese historian William <unk> , is that Chinese poems are typically <unk> , <unk> context that might be relevant , but which an informed contemporary could be assumed to know . For modern Western readers , " The less accurately we know the time , the place and the circumstances in the background , the more liable we are to imagine it incorrectly , and the result will be that we either <unk> the poem or fail to understand it altogether " . Stephen Owen suggests a third factor particular to Du Fu , arguing that the variety of the poet \'s work required consideration of his whole life , rather than the " <unk> " <unk> used for more limited poets . \n', '', ' = = = Early years = = = \n', '', " Most of what is known of Du Fu 's life comes from his poems . His paternal grandfather was Du <unk> , a noted politician and poet during the reign of Empress Wu . Du Fu was born in <unk> ; the exact birthplace is unknown , except that it was near Luoyang , Henan province ( Gong county is a favourite candidate ) . In later life , he considered himself to belong to the capital city of Chang 'an , ancestral hometown of the Du family . \n", " Du Fu 's mother died shortly after he was born , and he was partially raised by his aunt . He had an elder brother , who died young . He also had three half brothers and one half sister , to whom he frequently refers in his poems , although he never mentions his stepmother . \n", ' The son of a minor scholar @-@ official , his youth was spent on the standard education of a future civil servant : study and <unk> of the Confucian classics of philosophy , history and poetry . He later claimed to have produced <unk> poems by his early teens , but these have been lost . \n', " In the early <unk> , he travelled in the <unk> / Zhejiang area ; his earliest surviving poem , describing a poetry contest , is thought to date from the end of this period , around 735 . In that year , he took the civil service exam , likely in Chang 'an . He failed , to his surprise and that of centuries of later critics . <unk> concludes that he probably failed because his prose style at the time was too dense and obscure , while Chou suggests his failure to <unk> connections in the capital may have been to blame . After this failure , he went back to traveling , this time around Shandong and Hebei . \n", " His father died around 740 . Du Fu would have been allowed to enter the civil service because of his father 's rank , but he is thought to have given up the privilege in favour of one of his half brothers . He spent the next four years living in the Luoyang area , fulfilling his duties in domestic affairs . \n", ' In the autumn of <unk> , he met Li <unk> ( Li Po ) for the first time , and the two poets formed a friendship . David Young describes this as " the most significant formative element in Du Fu \'s artistic development " because it gave him a living example of the reclusive poet @-@ scholar life to which he was attracted after his failure in the civil service exam . The relationship was somewhat one @-@ sided , however . Du Fu was by some years the younger , while Li <unk> was already a poetic star . We have twelve poems to or about Li <unk> from the younger poet , but only one in the other direction . They met again only once , in <unk> . \n', ' In 746 , he moved to the capital in an attempt to resurrect his official career . He took the civil service exam a second time during the following year , but all the candidates were failed by the prime minister ( apparently in order to prevent the emergence of possible rivals ) . He never again attempted the examinations , instead <unk> the emperor directly in <unk> , 754 and probably again in <unk> . He married around <unk> , and by <unk> the couple had had five children — three sons and two daughters — but one of the sons died in infancy in <unk> . From 754 he began to have lung problems ( probably asthma ) , the first of a series of <unk> which <unk> him for the rest of his life . It was in that year that Du Fu was forced to move his family due to the turmoil of a famine brought about by massive floods in the region . \n', " In <unk> , he received an appointment as <unk> of the Right Commandant 's office of the Crown Prince 's Palace . Although this was a minor post , in normal times it would have been at least the start of an official career . Even before he had begun work , however , the position was swept away by events . \n", '', ' = = = War = = = \n', '', ' The An <unk> Rebellion began in December <unk> , and was not completely suppressed for almost eight years . It caused enormous disruption to Chinese society : the census of 754 recorded 52 @.@ 9 million people , but ten years later , the census counted just 16 @.@ 9 million , the remainder having been displaced or killed . During this time , Du Fu led a largely itinerant life <unk> by wars , associated <unk> and imperial <unk> . This period of <unk> was the making of Du Fu as a poet : Even Shan Chou has written that , " What he saw around him — the lives of his family , neighbors , and strangers – what he heard , and what he hoped for or feared from the progress of various campaigns — these became the enduring themes of his poetry " . Even when he learned of the death of his youngest child , he turned to the suffering of others in his poetry instead of dwelling upon his own <unk> . Du Fu wrote : \n', ' <unk> on what I have lived through , if even I know such suffering , the common man must surely be <unk> by the winds . \n', " In <unk> , Emperor <unk> was forced to flee the capital and <unk> . Du Fu , who had been away from the city , took his family to a place of safety and attempted to join the court of the new emperor ( <unk> ) , but he was captured by the rebels and taken to Chang 'an . In the autumn , his youngest son , Du <unk> ( Baby Bear ) , was born . Around this time Du Fu is thought to have contracted malaria . \n", " He escaped from Chang 'an the following year , and was appointed <unk> when he rejoined the court in May <unk> . This post gave access to the emperor but was largely ceremonial . Du Fu 's <unk> compelled him to try to make use of it : he caused trouble for himself by protesting the removal of his friend and patron Fang Guan on a petty charge . He was arrested but was <unk> in June . He was granted leave to visit his family in September , but he soon rejoined the court and on December 8 , <unk> , he returned to Chang 'an with the emperor following its recapture by government forces . However , his advice continued to be <unk> , and in the summer of <unk> he was demoted to a post as Commissioner of Education in <unk> . The position was not to his taste : in one poem , he wrote : \n", ' I am about to scream <unk> in the office / Especially when they bring more papers to pile higher on my desk . \n', ' He moved on in the summer of <unk> ; this has traditionally been ascribed to famine , but <unk> believes that frustration is a more likely reason . He next spent around six weeks in <unk> ( now <unk> , Gansu province ) , where he wrote more than sixty poems . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' In December <unk> , he briefly stayed in <unk> ( modern Gansu ) . He departed on December 24 for <unk> ( Sichuan province ) , where he was hosted by local <unk> and fellow poet <unk> Di . Du subsequently based himself in Sichuan for most of the next five years . By the autumn of that year he was in financial trouble , and sent poems <unk> help to various acquaintances . He was relieved by Yan Wu , a friend and former colleague who was appointed governor general at <unk> . Despite his financial problems , this was one of the <unk> and most peaceful periods of his life . Many of Du \'s poems from this period are peaceful depictions of his life at " <unk> <unk> " . In 762 , he left the city to escape a rebellion , but he returned in summer <unk> when he was appointed an advisor to Yan , who was involved in campaigns against the <unk> Empire . \n', '', ' = = = Last years = = = \n', '', " Luoyang , the region of his birthplace , was recovered by government forces in the winter of 762 , and in the spring of <unk> Du Fu and his family sailed down the Yangtze , apparently with the intention of making their way there . They traveled slowly , held up by his ill @-@ health ( by this time he was suffering from poor eyesight , <unk> and general old age in addition to his previous <unk> ) . They stayed in <unk> ( in what is now <unk> , <unk> ) at the entrance to the Three <unk> for almost two years from late spring <unk> . This period was Du Fu 's last great poetic flowering , and here he wrote 400 poems in his dense , late style . In autumn <unk> , Bo <unk> became governor of the region : he supported Du Fu financially and employed him as his unofficial secretary . \n", ' In March <unk> , he began his journey again and got as far as <unk> province , where he died in <unk> ( now <unk> ) in November or December 770 , in his <unk> year . He was survived by his wife and two sons , who remained in the area for some years at least . His last known descendant is a grandson who requested a grave inscription for the poet from Yuan <unk> in <unk> . \n', ' <unk> <unk> his life by concluding that , " He appeared to be a <unk> son , an affectionate father , a generous brother , a faithful husband , a loyal friend , a <unk> official , and a patriotic subject . " \n', " Below is an example of one of Du Fu 's later works , To My <unk> Friend <unk> ( Chinese : <unk> ) . Like many other poems in the Tang it featured the theme of a long parting between friends , which was often due to officials being frequently transferred to the provinces : \n", '', ' = = Works = = \n', '', " Criticism of Du Fu 's works has focused on his strong sense of history , his moral engagement , and his technical excellence . \n", '', ' = = = History = = = \n', '', ' Since the Song dynasty , critics have called Du Fu the " poet historian " ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) . The most directly historical of his poems are those commenting on military tactics or the successes and failures of the government , or the poems of advice which he wrote to the emperor . <unk> , he wrote about the effect of the times in which he lived on himself , and on the ordinary people of China . As Watson notes , this is information " of a kind seldom found in the officially compiled histories of the era " . \n', ' Du Fu \'s political comments are based on emotion rather than calculation : his <unk> have been <unk> as , " Let us all be less selfish , let us all do what we are supposed to do " . Since his views were impossible to disagree with , his <unk> expressed <unk> enabled his installation as the central figure of Chinese poetic history . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> engagement = = = \n', '', ' A second favourite epithet of Chinese critics is that of " poet sage " ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , a counterpart to the philosophical sage , <unk> . One of the earliest surviving works , The Song of the <unk> ( from around 750 ) , gives voice to the <unk> of a <unk> soldier in the imperial army and a clear @-@ sighted consciousness of suffering . These concerns are continuously articulated in poems on the lives of both soldiers and civilians produced by Du Fu throughout his life . \n', ' Although Du Fu \'s frequent references to his own difficulties can give the impression of an all @-@ consuming <unk> , Hawkes argues that his " famous compassion in fact includes himself , viewed quite <unk> and almost as an <unk> " . He therefore " lends grandeur " to the wider picture by comparing it to " his own slightly comical triviality " . \n', ' Du Fu \'s compassion , for himself and for others , was part of his general broadening of the scope of poetry : he devoted many works to topics which had previously been considered unsuitable for poetic treatment . Zhang Jie wrote that for Du Fu , " everything in this world is poetry " , Du wrote extensively on subjects such as domestic life , calligraphy , paintings , animals , and other poems . \n', '', ' = = = Technical excellence = = = \n', '', ' Du Fu \'s work is notable above all for its range . Chinese critics traditionally used the term <unk> ( <unk> " complete <unk> " ) , a reference to <unk> \' description of <unk> . Yuan <unk> was the first to note the breadth of Du Fu \'s achievement , writing in <unk> that his predecessor , " united in his work traits which previous men had displayed only singly " . He mastered all the forms of Chinese poetry : Chou says that in every form he " either made outstanding advances or contributed outstanding examples " . Furthermore , his poems use a wide range of registers , from the direct and <unk> to the <unk> and self @-@ consciously literary . This variety is <unk> even within individual works : Owen identifies the , " rapid stylistic and thematic shifts " in poems which enable the poet to represent different <unk> of a situation , while Chou uses the term " juxtaposition " as the major analytical tool in her work . Du Fu is noted for having written more on <unk> and painting than any other writer of his time . He wrote eighteen poems on painting alone , more than any other Tang poet . Du Fu \'s seemingly negative commentary on the prized horse paintings of Han <unk> <unk> a controversy that has persisted to the present day . \n', ' The tenor of his work changed as he developed his style and adapted to his surroundings ( " <unk> @-@ like " according to Watson ) : his earliest works are in a relatively derivative , courtly style , but he came into his own in the years of the rebellion . Owen comments on the " <unk> simplicity " of the <unk> poems , which mirrors the desert landscape ; the works from his <unk> period are " light , often finely observed " ; while the poems from the late <unk> period have a " density and power of vision " . \n', ' Although he wrote in all poetic forms , Du Fu is best known for his <unk> , a type of poem with strict constraints on form and content , for example : \n', ' About two thirds of Du Fu \'s 1500 extant works are in this form , and he is generally considered to be its leading exponent . His best <unk> use the <unk> required by the form to add expressive content rather than as mere technical restrictions . Hawkes comments that , " it is amazing that Tu Fu is able to use so immensely stylized a form in so natural a manner " . \n', '', ' = = Influence = = \n', '', ' According to the <unk> Britannica , Du Fu \'s writings are considered by many literary critics to be among the greatest of all time , and it states " his dense , compressed language makes use of all the <unk> overtones of a phrase and of all the <unk> <unk> of the individual word , qualities that no translation can ever reveal . " \n', ' In his lifetime and immediately following his death , Du Fu was not greatly appreciated . In part this can be attributed to his stylistic and formal innovations , some of which are still " considered extremely daring and bizarre by Chinese critics . " There are few contemporary references to him — only eleven poems from six writers — and these describe him in terms of affection , but not as a <unk> of poetic or moral ideals . Du Fu is also poorly represented in contemporary anthologies of poetry . \n', ' However , as <unk> notes , he " is the only Chinese poet whose influence grew with time " , and his works began to increase in popularity in the ninth century . Early positive comments came from <unk> <unk> , who praised the moral sentiments of some of Du Fu \'s works ( although he found these in only a small fraction of the poems ) , and from Han Yu , who wrote a piece defending Du Fu and Li <unk> on aesthetic grounds from attacks made against them . Both these writers showed the influence of Du Fu in their own poetic work . By the beginning of the 10th century , <unk> <unk> constructed the first replica of his <unk> cottage in Sichuan . \n', ' It was in the 11th century , during the Northern Song era that Du Fu \'s reputation reached its peak . In this period a comprehensive re @-@ evaluation of earlier poets took place , in which Wang <unk> , Li <unk> and Du Fu came to be regarded as representing respectively the Buddhist , <unk> and Confucian strands of Chinese culture . At the same time , the development of Neo @-@ <unk> ensured that Du Fu , as its poetic <unk> , occupied the paramount position . Su Shi famously expressed this reasoning when he wrote that Du Fu was " <unk> ... because ... through all his <unk> , he never for the space of a meal <unk> his sovereign " . His influence was helped by his ability to reconcile apparent opposites : political <unk> were attracted by his loyalty to the established order , while political radicals embraced his concern for the poor . Literary <unk> could look to his technical mastery , while literary radicals were inspired by his innovations . Since the establishment of the People \'s Republic of China , Du Fu \'s loyalty to the state and concern for the poor have been interpreted as embryonic nationalism and socialism , and he has been praised for his use of simple , " people \'s language " . \n', ' Du Fu \'s popularity grew to such an extent that it is as hard to measure his influence as that of Shakespeare in England : it was hard for any Chinese poet not to be influenced by him . While there was never another Du Fu , individual poets followed in the traditions of specific aspects of his work : <unk> <unk> \'s concern for the poor , Lu You \'s patriotism , and <unk> <unk> \'s <unk> on the <unk> are a few examples . More broadly , Du Fu \'s work in transforming the <unk> from mere word play into " a vehicle for serious poetic <unk> " set the stage for every subsequent writer in the genre . \n', ' In the 20th century , he was the favourite poet of Kenneth <unk> , who has described him as " the greatest non @-@ epic , non @-@ dramatic poet who has survived in any language " , and commented that , " he has made me a better man , as a moral agent and as a <unk> organism " . \n', '', ' = = = Influence on Japanese literature = = = \n', '', " Du Fu 's poetry has made a profound impact on Japanese literature , especially on the literature from the <unk> period and on scholars and poets in the Edo period , including <unk> <unk> , the very greatest of all <unk> poets . Even in modern Japanese , the term Saint of Poetry ( <unk> , <unk> ) is mostly synonymous with Du Fu . \n", ' Until the 13th century , the Japanese preferred <unk> <unk> above all poets and there were few references to Du Fu , although his influence can be seen in some <unk> ( " Chinese poetry made by Japanese poets " ) anthologies such as <unk> <unk> in the 9th century . The first notable Japanese <unk> of Du Fu \'s poetry was <unk> <unk> ( <unk> – <unk> ) , a <unk> <unk> patriarch and one of the most prominent authors of the literature of the Five Mountains ; he highly praised Du Fu and made a commentary on some poems of Du Fu from the perspective of a <unk> priest in Vol . 11 of <unk> . His student <unk> <unk> composed many <unk> which were clearly stated " influenced by Du Fu " in their <unk> . <unk> \'s student <unk> <unk> had close connection with the Court and <unk> <unk> and <unk> Du Fu \'s poetry in the mundane world ; one day <unk> <unk> , the <unk> regent of the Court and the highest authority of <unk> poetry , asked <unk> , " Should I learn the poetry of Du Fu and Li <unk> ? " <unk> <unk> to reply , " Yes if you do have enough capability . No if do not . " Since then , there had been many <unk> on Du Fu \'s poetry both in <unk> temples and in the aristocratic society , and as a result his poetry was often cited in Japanese literature in the <unk> period , e.g. , <unk> , a historical epic in the late 14th century , and some <unk> plays such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . \n', " During the Kan <unk> era of the Edo period ( 1624 – 1643 ) , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) of the Ming Dynasty 's <unk> <unk> on Du Fu 's <unk> ( <unk> , <unk> <unk> ) was imported into Japan , and it gained explosive popularity in Confucian scholars and <unk> ( <unk> ) class . The commentary established Du Fu 's fame as the highest of all poets ; for instance , <unk> <unk> , a notable Confucian scholar , commented in Vol . 37 of <unk> <unk> that <unk> [ Du Fu ] was the very best poet in history and praised <unk> <unk> 's commentary for its simplicity and readability , while he criticized old commentaries during the Yuan Dynasty were too <unk> . <unk> <unk> , the greatest <unk> poet , was also strongly influenced by Du Fu ; in <unk> no <unk> , his masterpiece , he cites the first two lines of A Spring View ( <unk> ) before a <unk> as its introduction and also many of his other <unk> have similar wording and themes . It is said that when he died in Osaka during a long travel , a copy of Du Fu 's poetry was found with him as one of a few precious items which he was able to carry around . \n", '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' A variety of styles have been used in efforts to translate Du Fu \'s work into English . As Burton Watson remarks in The Selected Poems of Du Fu , " There are many different ways to approach the problems involved in translating Du Fu , which is why we need as many different translations as possible " ( <unk> <unk> ) . The translators have had to contend with bringing out the formal constraints of the original without sounding <unk> to a Western ear ( particularly when translating regulated verse , or <unk> ) , and <unk> the complex allusions contained particularly in the later works ( Hawkes writes that " his poems do not as a rule come through very well in translation " — <unk> <unk> ) . One extreme on each issue is represented by Kenneth <unk> \'s One Hundred Poems From the Chinese . His are free translations , which seek to conceal the <unk> through <unk> and expansion and contraction of the content ; his responses to the allusions are firstly to <unk> most of these poems from his selection , and <unk> to " translate out " the references in those works which he does select . \n', ' Other translators have placed much greater weight on trying to convey a sense of the poetic forms used by Du Fu . Vikram Seth in Three Chinese Poets uses English @-@ style rhyme schemes , whereas Keith <unk> in Facing the Moon <unk> the Chinese rhyme scheme ; both use end @-@ stopped lines and preserve some degree of <unk> . In The Selected Poems of Du Fu , Burton Watson follows the <unk> quite strictly , persuading the western reader to adapt to the poems rather than vice versa . Similarly , he deals with the allusion of the later works by combining literal translation with extensive <unk> . \n', ' In 2015 , Stephen Owen published translations , with facing Chinese texts , of the complete poetry of Du Fu in six volumes , with extensive scholarly apparatus , which emphasized <unk> . \n', '', '', ' = Kiss You ( One Direction song ) = \n', '', ' " Kiss You " is a song recorded by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction for their second studio album , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) . It was released as the record \'s second single in Germany and the third overall single on 7 January 2013 . The song was composed by <unk> <unk> , <unk> Lundin , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> and its producers , Carl <unk> and <unk> <unk> . " Kiss You " is an upbeat power pop song with electronic effects ; the lyrics detail a protagonist \'s infatuation with a significant other . Critics praised the song for its production , calling it a stand @-@ out track on Take Me Home . \n', ' The track became the group \'s sixth top @-@ ten hit in Ireland and the United Kingdom , while attaining top @-@ forty positions in both Belgian territories ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , as well as in Australia , Canada , Denmark , France , New Zealand , and the Netherlands . The single peaked at number 46 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and has been certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . One Direction performed " Kiss You " on both the UK and US versions of The X Factor and 3 major concert tours : Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) , Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) and On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) . \n', ' An accompanying music video , designed to display the group \'s comedic timing , was directed by Vaughan <unk> , who had previously worked with the group on two other music videos . The clip depicts the band shooting various scenes via a green screen , which include sequences reminiscent of iconic music videos of songs such as the Beach Boys \' " Surfer Girl " , Elvis Presley \'s " <unk> Rock " and <unk> \'s " Mein Land " . The music video received 10 @.@ 4 million views in a 24 @-@ hour period and positive commentary from reviewers , who appreciated its <unk> , <unk> nature . \n', " The song was included in the dancing game Just Dance 2014 , and is also one of the select songs available on the demo version . Additionally , it is the final main track on the US edition of Now That 's What I Call Music ! 46 . \n", '', ' = = Background and release = = \n', '', ' " Kiss You " was written by <unk> <unk> , <unk> Lundin , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> , and its producers , Carl <unk> and <unk> <unk> . <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> had <unk> composed One Direction \'s previous hit singles , " What Makes You Beautiful " , " One Thing " , and " Live While We \'re Young " . In April 2012 , The Independent reported that Simon Cowell , the group \'s manager , had challenged prominent songwriters to compete for space on One Direction \'s second album . <unk> said , " It \'s important to get their personalities on the music . " In addition , the article reported that Syco Records was working on candidates that included Max Martin and Lundin . \n', ' " Kiss You " was chosen as the second US single and third international from their second studio album , Take Me Home . Liam Payne , a group member , in a November 2012 interview with MTV News , explained why they chose " Kiss You " as the album \'s second single in the US . Payne was quoted as saying : " With the album , that \'s the first one that we listened to and we were like , \' Yeah , we love this song \' " . According to a MTV News article , the number was released digitally in the United States on 17 November 2012 . By 18 January 2013 , the song had not been officially promoted to US radio stations . The track , however , was released by Sony Music Entertainment on 8 February 2013 , as the record \'s second single in Germany . \n', '', ' = = Composition and reception = = \n', '', ' " Kiss You " is an uptempo , upbeat power pop song which runs for a duration of 3 : 04 ( 3 minutes , four seconds ) . The track features electronic effects , colossal hooks , a " na na na " breakdown , and a Motown @-@ <unk> melody . One Direction \'s vocal range in the song span from the note of E4 to C ♯ 6 . Instrumentation includes guitar strings , piano lines and vocals . Written in the key of E major , the beat is set in common time and moves at a quick 90 beats per minute , according to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing . Likewise , Matt <unk> from Allmusic noted that the track is " <unk> hyper " . The lyrical content regards the protagonist \'s infatuation with a significant other , and incorporates <unk> for sexual intercourse in the lines " If you don ’ t wanna take it slow / And you just wanna take me home / Baby say yeah , yeah , yeah , yeah , yeah . " \n', ' " Kiss You " was well received by contemporary music critics , who centred on its quality of production . Both Rolling Stone \'s Jon Dolan , who praised its effectiveness , and Chris Payne of Billboard , who appreciated the melody , described " Kiss You " as one of the album \'s highlights . Alexis <unk> for The Guardian commended the track \'s chorus as " hard to <unk> from your brain " . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy noted the song \'s possibility to become an international hit , <unk> it <unk> . A reviewer for MTV News described the track \'s <unk> as " butterflies @-@ inducing " , and Sam <unk> of Idolator wrote that " Kiss You " is noticeably a stand @-@ out track on its parent album . Melinda Newman , writing for HitFix , regarded the song as " a <unk> , electronic infectious ditty , " while Chris <unk> , a critic from <unk> , deemed it an " amazing pop song " , lauding the group \'s falsetto and its " head @-@ <unk> <unk> " chorus . \n', '', ' = = Commercial performance = = \n', '', ' The single made its Irish Singles Chart debut at number 24 on the week ending 13 December 2012 . It peaked at number seven on the week ending 17 January 2013 , marking their sixth top ten appearance in Ireland . " Kiss You " entered at number 152 in the UK Singles Chart on 24 November 2012 . It peaked at number nine on the UK Singles Chart on 26 January 2013 , becoming One Direction \'s sixth top ten hit in the United Kingdom . On the week ending 18 November 2012 , " Kiss You " debuted at number 90 on the United States Billboard Hot 100 due to digital download sales from its parent album . As a result of an " end @-@ of @-@ year download rush " on the week ending 30 December 2012 , the track re @-@ entered the Hot 100 at number 83 . After the accompanying music video was released , the song re @-@ entered the Hot 100 at number 65 . " Kiss You " had sold 207 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US by 18 January 2013 . The single ultimately peaked at number 46 on the Hot 100 and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 25 April 2013 , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . \n', ' The song became One Direction \'s fourth top @-@ forty hit on the Canadian Hot 100 , peaking at number 30 . The single bowed at number 13 on the Australian Singles Chart on 27 January 2013 , marking its peak position and the group \'s fourth top twenty hit in Australia . The song has been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 copies . The track entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number 17 on 11 January 2013 . It peaked at number 13 in its third and fourth charting weeks , <unk> the group \'s sixth top @-@ forty appearance in New Zealand . " Kiss You " has received a gold certification from the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( <unk> ) , indicating sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies . The track also reached the top 40 in both Belgian territories ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , as well as in the Czech Republic , Denmark , France , the Netherlands , and South Korea . In addition , " Kiss You " received gold certifications from the IFPI Norway and Denmark associations , signifying collective shipments of 20 @,@ 000 units . \n', '', ' = = Music video = = \n', '', ' The accompanying music video , directed by Vaughan <unk> , who had previously directed One Direction \'s music videos for " Live While We \'re Young " and " Little Things " , was designed to showcase the group \'s comedic timing . Inspired by the Beach Boys , cult surfing films , old Hollywood , and British cinema , the music video incorporates " a <unk> vibe and a British kind of romp " , as noted by <unk> in a MTV News interview . \n', ' Shot by November 2012 , the music video was characterised , in several MTV News interviews , as " bigger than anything we \'ve done before " by <unk> <unk> , as " a lot of hard work " by Payne , as " pure <unk> " by Louis <unk> , and as " I wouldn \'t say [ it \'s ] comedy , it \'s all tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " by <unk> . <unk> worldwide on <unk> on 7 January 2013 , the music video depicts the band shooting different scenes via a green screen , dressed as sailors , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . The video features scenes reminiscent of the films South Pacific , To <unk> a Thief , <unk> Rock and Beach <unk> <unk> , as well as the iconic music videos of songs such as The Beach Boys \' " Surfer Girl " , Elvis Presley \'s " Blue Hawaii " and <unk> \'s " Mein Land " , among others . \n', ' The music video garnered 10 @.@ 4 million views in a 24 @-@ hour period , failing to attain the <unk> record held by Justin <unk> \'s " Beauty and a Beat " music video ( 10 @.@ 6 million ) . Despite a 34 % gain in weekly activity to their <unk> channel , with the clip \'s success and preceding teaser videos earning 38 million views during the week , One Direction held at number two on the Billboard \'s Social 50 chart A 15 % rise in Facebook reaction gave way to a 154 @,@ 000 increase in Facebook likes during the week . 191 @,@ 000 Twitter followers added contributed to their overall fan base increase as well . \n', ' Melinda Newman , a contributor for HitFix , favoured the clip as having " everything a video by a boy band should be " and found group \'s careless tone delightful . Rebecca <unk> of E ! Online praised its " intentionally cheesy and utterly adorable " sequences , and MTV News \'s <unk> <unk> described the clip as " conquering old Hollywood " . Molly Chance , writing for <unk> , was convinced that upon watching the " adorable " music video , the viewer should have a hard time <unk> the group . <unk> Wood , the critic for Los Angeles Times , commended the group for " having a genuinely great time " , rather than going through the motions . \n', '', ' = = Live performances = = \n', '', ' As part of its promotion , One Direction performed the song on televised programmes and during their worldwide Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) . One Direction performed the track on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center on 13 November 2012 , to a record crowd estimated at 15 @,@ 000 . " Kiss You " was included in the set list of the group \'s 3 December 2012 sold @-@ out show at New York City \'s Madison Square Garden . One Direction delivered a performance of " Kiss You " , in front of a video game @-@ themed set , on the final of the ninth series of The X Factor UK on 10 December 2012 . According to the Daily Mail , their " energetic rendition " of " Kiss You " proved that the group have an elusive quality . On 12 December 2012 , the group also performed the number on the final of the second season of The X Factor USA . Considering One Direction the " franchise \'s biggest success story " , an editor for The Huffington Post opined that the boy band \'s prominent presence on both the US and UK versions of The X Factor seemed fitting . Not only Take Me Home Tour , they also performance in Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) & On the Road Again Tour ( 2015 ) \n', '', ' = = Track listing = = \n', '', ' CD single \n', ' " Kiss You " – 3 : 04 \n', ' " Little Things " – 3 : 42 \n', '', ' = = Credits and personnel = = \n', '', ' Carl <unk> — writing , production , programming , instruments , guitar , background vocals \n', ' <unk> <unk> — background vocals \n', ' Niall <unk> — additional guitar \n', ' <unk> <unk> — writing , background vocals \n', ' <unk> Lundin — writing \n', ' <unk> <unk> — writing , background vocals \n', ' <unk> — writing \n', ' <unk> <unk> — writing , production , programming , instruments , bass \n', " Credits adapted from Take Me Home 's liner notes . \n", '', ' = = Charts = = \n', '', '', ' = = Certifications = = \n', '', '', ' = = Release history = = \n', '', '', '', ' = <unk> @-@ class battleship = \n', '', ' The <unk> @-@ class battleships ( <unk> , <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> ) were a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( <unk> ) during World War I. Originally intended to be repeats of the preceding <unk> class , they were redesigned before construction began . Both ships carried supplies for the survivors of the Great <unk> earthquake in 1923 . They were modernized in 1934 – 37 with improvements to their armour and machinery and a rebuilt superstructure in the pagoda mast style . Afterwards they played a minor role in the Second <unk> @-@ Japanese War . \n', " Despite the expensive reconstructions , both vessels were considered obsolete by the eve of the Pacific War , and neither saw significant action in the early years of the war . Following the loss of most of the <unk> 's large aircraft carriers during the Battle of Midway in mid @-@ 1942 , they were rebuilt with a flight deck replacing the rear pair of gun turrets to give them the ability to operate an air group of <unk> . A lack of aircraft and qualified pilots , however , meant that they never actually operated their aircraft in combat . While awaiting their air group the sister ships were sometimes used to ferry troops and material to Japanese bases . They participated in the Battle of Cape <unk> in late 1944 , where they <unk> the American carrier fleet supporting the invasion of <unk> away from the landing beaches . Afterwards both ships were transferred to Southeast Asia ; in early 1945 they participated in Operation <unk> , where they transported petrol and other strategic materials to Japan . The sisters were then reduced to reserve until they were sunk during American airstrikes in July . After the war they were scrapped in 1946 – 47 . \n", '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', " The design of the <unk> @-@ class battleships was shaped both by the ongoing international naval arms race and a desire among Japanese naval planners to maintain a fleet of capital ships powerful enough to defeat the United States Navy in an encounter in Japanese territorial waters . The <unk> 's fleet of battleships had proven highly successful in 1905 , the last year of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , which culminated in the destruction of the Russian Second and Third Pacific Squadrons at the Battle of <unk> . \n", ' In the aftermath , the Japanese Empire immediately turned its focus to the two remaining rivals for imperial dominance in the Pacific Ocean : Britain and the United States . <unk> <unk> , a Japanese Navy admiral and military theorist , speculated that conflict would inevitably arise between Japan and at least one of its two main rivals . To that end , he called for the Japanese Navy to maintain a fleet with at least 70 % as many capital ships as the US Navy . This ratio , <unk> theorized , would enable the Imperial Japanese Navy to defeat the US Navy in one major battle in Japanese waters in any eventual conflict . Accordingly , the 1907 Imperial Defence Policy called for the construction of a battle fleet of eight modern battleships , 20 @,@ 000 long tons ( 20 @,@ 321 t ) each , and eight modern armoured cruisers , 18 @,@ 000 long tons ( 18 @,@ <unk> t ) each . This was the genesis of the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program , the development of a cohesive battle line of sixteen capital ships . \n', " The launch of HMS <unk> in 1906 by the Royal Navy raised the stakes , and complicated Japan 's plans . <unk> 17 @,@ 900 long tons ( 18 @,@ 200 t ) and armed with ten 12 @-@ inch ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) guns , <unk> rendered all existing battleships obsolete by comparison . The launch of the battlecruiser HMS Invincible the following year was a further setback for Japan 's quest for parity . When the two new <unk> @-@ class battleships and two <unk> @-@ class armoured cruisers , launched by 1911 , were <unk> by their British counterparts , the Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program was <unk> . \n", ' The first battleships built for the renewed Eight @-@ Eight Fleet Program were the two dreadnoughts of the <unk> class , ordered in 1907 and laid down in 1908 . In 1910 , the Navy put forward a request to the Diet ( parliament ) to secure funding for the entirety of the program at once . Because of economic constraints , only four battlecruisers and a single battleship of the <unk> class were ultimately approved by the Diet . Three more <unk> @-@ class ships ( <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> ) were approved and all three were ordered in April 1913 . While <unk> was laid down later that year , the <unk> lacked the funding to proceed with the construction of <unk> and <unk> until the Diet authorized additional funding for the ships in July 1914 . \n', '', ' = = Design and description = = \n', '', " The progress of <unk> 's construction , while the <unk> waited for the funding to be released and foreign developments , caused the <unk> to <unk> the <unk> @-@ class design . The distribution of the <unk> gun turrets was the most obvious flaw as they complicated the protection of the <unk> magazine and exposed more of the ship to the blast effects of the guns when they fired . Another issue was that Japanese sailors had problems maintaining a high rate of fire with the 45 @.@ 36 @-@ kilogram ( 100 @.@ 0 lb ) shells used in the manually loaded 152 @-@ millimetre ( 6 in ) secondary guns used in the <unk> class and earlier designs . To resolve this issue , the <unk> designed a smaller 140 @-@ millimetre ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) gun that offset its lighter shell weight with a higher rate of fire . It also decided that the barbette armour of the earlier ships was too thin and wanted a modest increase in speed to partially counter the higher speeds of the latest foreign ships like the British Queen Elizabeth @-@ class battleships and Russian <unk> @-@ class battlecruisers . For financial reasons more powerful engines could not be ordered so the new design was lengthened slightly and the boiler rooms enlarged to increase speed by 0 @.@ 5 knots ( 0 @.@ 93 km / h ; 0 @.@ 58 mph ) to 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . To save weight the forecastle deck was shortened so that the lower <unk> gun turret was lower than in the <unk> class . This reduced the crew 's accommodations despite a significant increase in the crew 's numbers and naval historian <unk> <unk> believed that these ships had the worst <unk> of any Japanese capital ship . The final design was designated A @-@ 92 by the <unk> and differed enough from the A @-@ 64 design of the <unk> class that it was considered a separate class . \n", ' The ships had a length of 208 @.@ 18 metres ( <unk> ft 0 in ) overall , a beam of 28 @.@ 65 metres ( 94 ft 0 in ) and a draught of 8 @.@ 93 metres ( 29 ft 4 in ) at deep load . They displaced 36 @,@ 500 long tons ( 37 @,@ 100 t ) at deep load , roughly 650 long tons ( 660 t ) more than the preceding class . Their crew consisted of 1 @,@ 360 officers and enlisted men . They had a <unk> height of 1 @.@ 737 metres ( 5 ft 8 @.@ 4 in ) at deep load . \n', " During the ships ' modernization during the 1930s , their forward <unk> were enlarged with multiple platforms added to their tripod <unk> . Both ships were also given torpedo <unk> to improve their underwater protection and to compensate for the weight of the additional armour . In addition , their <unk> were lengthened by 7 @.@ 62 metres ( 25 @.@ 0 ft ) . These changes increased their overall length to 213 @.@ 8 metres ( 701 ft ) , their beam to 31 @.@ 75 metres ( 104 ft 2 in ) and their draft to 9 @.@ 45 metres ( 31 ft 0 in ) . Their displacement increased over 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) to 42 @,@ 001 long tons ( 42 @,@ <unk> t ) at deep load . The crew now numbered 1 @,@ <unk> officers and enlisted men . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The <unk> @-@ class ships had two sets of direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove two propeller shafts with 3 @.@ <unk> @-@ metre ( 11 ft 3 in ) propellers . The high @-@ pressure turbines drove the wing shafts while the low @-@ pressure turbines drove the inner shafts . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 40 @,@ 000 or 45 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 30 @,@ 000 or 34 @,@ 000 kW ) ( <unk> and <unk> respectively ) , using steam provided by 24 <unk> <unk> <unk> water @-@ tube boilers at working pressures of 13 – 16 @.@ 9 kg / <unk> ( 1 @,@ 275 – 1 @,@ <unk> <unk> ; 185 – 240 <unk> ) . Both ships comfortably exceeded their designed speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) during their sea trials ; <unk> reached 23 @.@ 6 knots ( 43 @.@ 7 km / h ; 27 @.@ 2 mph ) from 56 @,@ <unk> shp ( 42 @,@ 131 kW ) and <unk> exceeded that with 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) from 63 @,@ <unk> shp ( 47 @,@ 136 kW ) . Each of the boilers consumed a mixture of coal and oil and the ships had a stowage capacity of 4 @,@ <unk> long tons ( 4 @,@ <unk> t ) of coal and 1 @,@ <unk> long tons ( 1 @,@ <unk> t ) of fuel oil , which gave them a range of 9 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 17 @,@ 930 km ; 11 @,@ 140 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . <unk> and <unk> had three generators of 150 <unk> ( 200 hp ) capacity and two 250 @-@ <unk> ( 340 hp ) <unk> generators at 225 volts . \n', ' During their 1930s modernization , the boilers on each ship were replaced by eight new <unk> oil @-@ fired boilers , fitted into the former aft boiler room , and the forward funnel was removed . The turbines were replaced by four geared <unk> turbines with a designed output of 80 @,@ 000 shp ( 60 @,@ 000 kW ) intended to increase their speed to 24 @.@ 5 knots ( 45 @.@ 4 km / h ; 28 @.@ 2 mph ) . On her trials , <unk> reached a top speed of 25 @.@ 26 knots ( 46 @.@ 78 km / h ; 29 @.@ 07 mph ) from 81 @,@ 050 shp ( 60 @,@ 440 kW ) . The fuel storage of the ships was increased to a total of 5 @,@ 113 long tons ( 5 @,@ 195 t ) of fuel oil that gave them a range of 7 @,@ <unk> nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 580 km ; 9 @,@ 060 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . \n', '', ' = = = Armament = = = \n', '', ' The twelve 45 @-@ calibre 35 @.@ 6 cm ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) Type 41 guns of the <unk> class were mounted in three pairs of twin @-@ gun , superfiring turrets . <unk> one through six from front to rear , each turret weighed <unk> long tons ( <unk> t ) . The <unk> powered turrets had an elevation capability of − 5 / + 20 degrees . The guns had a rate of fire of 1 @.@ 5 – 2 rounds per minute and could be loaded at any angle between <unk> and + 20 degrees . In 1921 the elevation was increased to + 30 degrees and then to + 43 degrees during their mid @-@ 1930s modernization , except for No. 6 turret as its supporting structure could not be lowered . The <unk> mechanism of the guns was also changed from a hydraulic to a <unk> system , which allowed for a faster firing cycle of the main guns . \n', ' By World War II , the guns used Type 91 armour @-@ piercing , capped shells . Each of these shells weighed <unk> @.@ 5 kilograms ( 1 @,@ <unk> lb ) and was fired at a muzzle velocity of 770 – 775 metres per second ( 2 @,@ <unk> – 2 @,@ 540 ft / s ) . They had a maximum range of 25 @,@ 000 metres ( 27 @,@ 000 yd ) at + 20 degrees of elevation and 35 @,@ 450 meters ( 38 @,@ 770 yd ) at + 43 degrees after modernization . Also available was a 625 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ <unk> lb ) high @-@ explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 805 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 640 ft / s ) . A special Type 3 <unk> incendiary shrapnel shell was developed in the 1930s for anti @-@ aircraft use . \n', " The ships ' secondary armament consisted of twenty 50 @-@ calibre 14 @-@ <unk> Type 3 . Eighteen of these were mounted in casemates in the forecastle and superstructure and the remaining pair were mounted on the deck above them and protected by gun shields . They had a maximum elevation of + 20 degrees which gave them ranges of 16 @,@ 300 metres ( 17 @,@ 800 yd ) . Each gun had a rate of fire of up to 10 rounds per minute . Anti @-@ aircraft defence was provided by four 40 @-@ calibre 3rd Year Type 8 @-@ <unk> AA guns in single mounts . The 7 @.@ 62 @-@ <unk> ( 3 in ) high @-@ angle guns had a maximum elevation of + 75 degrees , and had a rate of fire of 13 to 20 rounds per minute . They fired a 6 kg ( 13 lb ) <unk> with a muzzle velocity of 680 m / s ( 2 @,@ 200 ft / s ) to a maximum height of 7 @,@ 500 metres ( 24 @,@ 600 ft ) . The ships were also fitted with six submerged 53 @.@ 3 @-@ <unk> ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside . They carried twelve to eighteen 6th Year Type torpedoes which had a 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) warhead . They had three settings for range and speed : 15 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 yd ) at 26 knots ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) , 10 @,@ 000 metres ( 11 @,@ 000 yd ) at 32 knots ( 59 km / h ; 37 mph ) , or 7 @,@ 000 metres ( 7 @,@ 700 yd ) at 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) . \n", ' In 1931 – 33 the AA guns were replaced with eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns , fitted on both sides of the forward <unk> in four twin @-@ gun mounts . When firing at surface targets , the guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 metres ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) ; they had a ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 metres ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at their maximum elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was 14 rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . Two twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Vickers two @-@ pounder light AA guns were also added . These guns had a maximum elevation of + 80 degrees and a rate of fire of 200 rounds per minute . The pair of 14 cm guns on the upper deck were removed at this time . \n', ' During the mid @-@ 1930s reconstruction the torpedo tubes were removed and the Vickers two @-@ pounders were replaced by twenty license @-@ built <unk> 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns in 10 twin @-@ gun mounts . This was the standard Japanese light AA gun during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it a largely ineffective weapon . According to historian Mark <unk> , the twin and triple mounts " lacked sufficient speed in train or elevation ; the gun sights were unable to handle fast targets ; the gun exhibited excessive vibration ; the magazine was too small , and , finally , the gun produced excessive muzzle blast " . These 25 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and an effective ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of 85 degrees . The maximum effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the fifteen @-@ round magazines . In addition the forward pair of 14 cm guns in the forecastle were removed at this time and the maximum elevation of the remaining guns was increased to + 30 degrees . \n', '', ' = = = Protection = = = \n', '', " The <unk> @-@ class ships ' waterline protective belt had a maximum thickness of <unk> mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of Vickers cemented armour amidships ; below it was a <unk> of 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) armour . The upper armoured deck consisted of two layers of high @-@ tensile steel 55 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick and the lower armoured deck also consisted of two layers of high @-@ tensile steel , but only 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The sides of this deck sloped downwards to meet the bottom of the lower <unk> of the belt armour . The ends of the belt armour were closed off by bulkheads that ranged in thickness from 203 to 102 mm ( 8 to 4 in ) . The turrets were protected with an armour thickness of 254 mm ( 10 in ) on the face and 76 mm on the roof . The casemate armour was 149 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick and that of the barbettes was <unk> mm thick rather than the originally planned 305 mm . The sides of the conning tower were 305 mm thick . \n", ' The <unk> class were the only Japanese battleships to place the powder magazine above the shell magazine as the <unk> wished to put as much space as possible between the highly flammable propellant and mine and torpedo <unk> . The danger from <unk> shells at long distances was not appreciated until the fatal magazine explosions of three British battlecruisers during the 1916 Battle of Jutland <unk> demonstrated the point . To further protect the magazines the depth of the double bottom was increased to a total of 3 @.@ 58 metres ( 11 ft 9 in ) underneath the barbettes and magazines . Additionally , the vessels contained 660 <unk> compartments to preserve <unk> in the event of battle damage . In addition to the torpedo <unk> added when the ships were modernized , the deck armour over the machinery and magazines was increased to a total thickness of 140 mm . Inside the original skin of the ships , two torpedo bulkheads were also added and the turret roofs were increased to a total of 152 millimetres ( 6 in ) of armour . \n', '', ' = = = Fire control and sensors = = = \n', '', " While the details of the ship 's fire @-@ control instruments are not fully available , it is known that the ships were fitted with a fire @-@ control director after completion . No computer was fitted at that time and data from the rangefinders had to be processed manually . <unk> 2 , 3 , and 5 were built with imported 6 @-@ metre ( 19 ft 8 in ) <unk> & <unk> rangefinders . These were felt to be inferior to the British <unk> & Stroud instruments used on other ships and were removed in 1920 . They were replaced by either the British rangefinders or domestically built instruments of 6 or 8 metres ( 19 ft 8 in or 26 ft 3 in ) length . In the late 1920s the fire @-@ control systems were upgraded and additional platforms were added to the foremast to accommodate them . A pair of directors for the 12 @.@ 7 cm AA guns were added , one on each side of the forward superstructure , in the early 1930s . The fire @-@ control systems were again upgraded in the mid @-@ 1930s and directors were added for the 25 mm AA guns . Both ships had 10 @-@ metre ( 32 ft 10 in ) rangefinders installed at the top of the pagoda mast at that time . Type 21 air @-@ search <unk> were installed aboard the sisters in mid @-@ 1942 . \n", '', ' = = = Aircraft = = = \n', '', ' <unk> was briefly fitted with an aircraft flying @-@ off platform for a <unk> <unk> fighter on <unk> No. 2 in 1927 . It was replaced by a platform on <unk> No. 5 for a <unk> <unk> reconnaissance <unk> in 1928 – 29 . A catapult and a <unk> 4 @-@ <unk> ( 3 @.@ 9 @-@ long @-@ ton ) crane were fitted on the stern during the mid @-@ 1930s modernization , and the ships were equipped to operate three <unk> , although no hangar was provided . The initial Nakajima <unk> <unk> were replaced by Nakajima <unk> <unk> in 1938 . \n', '', ' = = <unk> to hybrid carriers = = \n', '', ' The sinking of the British capital ships Prince of Wales and Repulse by Japanese land @-@ based aircraft on 10 December 1941 led the <unk> to realize that battleships could not operate in the face of enemy aircraft and required friendly air support to protect them . The loss of four Japanese aircraft carriers during the Battle of Midway in June 1942 severely limited the ability of the <unk> to provide any air cover and <unk> were sought . Earlier proposals to convert one or more battleships into carriers had been made and rejected at the beginning of the war , but they were revived after Midway . Plans for more elaborate <unk> were rejected on the grounds of expense and , most critically , time , and the <unk> settled on removing the rear pair of turrets and replacing them with a flight deck equipped with two <unk> to launch <unk> . The <unk> @-@ class ships were selected for the conversion because <unk> had suffered an explosion in <unk> No. 5 in early May that virtually destroyed the turret and their <unk> No. 6 could not elevate to the full + 43 degrees deemed necessary for the long @-@ range engagement anticipated by the <unk> . The <unk> were scheduled to follow once the first two were completed . \n', '', ' = = = Armament changes = = = \n', '', " The rear turrets , the barbettes and their supporting structures were removed beginning in early 1943 and the openings in the middle deck were covered by 152 mm plates salvaged from the turret armour . All of the 14 cm guns were removed and the casemate openings sealed off . Four additional twin 12 @.@ 7 cm mounts were added , one pair abreast the funnel and the other abreast the conning tower . The original ten twin 25 mm gun mounts were replaced by triple mounts and nine new triple mounts were added , a total of 57 guns . Two each Type 94 and Type 95 AA directors were added to control the additional guns . The ammunition for these new guns was stored in the magazines originally used for the 14 cm guns and for <unk> No. 5 . During 1944 , the ships ' AA defences were reinforced with an additional dozen triple and eleven single 25 mm gun mounts , for a total of 104 barrels , and a pair of Type 13 early warning <unk> were added . In September six 30 @-@ round AA rocket launchers were added on the sides of the flight deck . \n", '', ' = = = Flight deck arrangements = = = \n', '', ' A 70 @-@ metre @-@ long ( <unk> ft 8 in ) flight deck was built above the stern and stretched forward to the rebuilt aft superstructure . The flight deck was 29 metres ( 95 ft 2 in ) wide at its forward end and 13 metres ( 42 ft 8 in ) at the stern . It <unk> the stern and increased the overall length of the ships to 219 @.@ 62 metres ( 720 ft 6 in ) . A pair of rotating gunpowder @-@ propelled <unk> were fitted on the sides of the hull , forward of the aft superstructure where they partially restricted the arc of fire of the two amidships turrets . They could launch aircraft up to 4 @,@ 600 kilograms ( 10 @,@ 100 lb ) in weight and required 30 seconds to launch each aircraft . The flight deck had eight permanent storage positions connected by rails to the <unk> and the <unk> operated aircraft lift that brought the aircraft up from the hangar below on the trolleys used to move the <unk> about . Two aircraft were intended to be <unk> on the <unk> and three more in temporary positions on the flight deck for a total of thirteen . \n', " The 40 @-@ metre @-@ long ( 131 ft 3 in ) hangar was 20 metres ( 65 ft 7 in ) wide forward and 11 metres ( 36 ft 1 in ) at the rear . It was 6 metres ( 19 ft 8 in ) high and designed to <unk> nine aircraft . It was fitted with fire fighting <unk> and carbon dioxide <unk> as a result of wartime experience . The ' T ' <unk> lift was 12 @.@ 1 metres ( 39 ft 8 in ) wide at its forward end and 6 @.@ 6 metres ( 21 ft 8 in ) wide at the its aft end . It was 12 @.@ 1 metres long and had a capacity of 6 tonnes ( 5 @.@ 9 long tons ) . <unk> storage tanks with a capacity of 76 tonnes ( 75 long tons ) were installed in the former magazine of <unk> No. 6 to provide each aircraft with enough fuel for three sorties . To recover the aircraft the <unk> crane formerly on the stern was moved up to the port side of the flight deck . Another crane was intended on the starboard side , but it was never fitted . \n", ' The ships had an air group of 11 each of <unk> <unk> dive bombers ( Allied reporting name " Judy " ) and <unk> <unk> reconnaissance aircraft ( Allied reporting name " Paul " ) Both aircraft had development problems and neither air group ever had all of its intended aircraft . Coupled with a shortage of trained pilots , neither ship ever used its aircraft during combat . \n', '', ' = = = Other changes = = = \n', '', " After the loss of the fast battleship <unk> at the Naval Battle of <unk> in late 1942 to rudder damage , the <unk> decided to reinforce the protection of the steering compartment and to create an auxiliary steering compartment . The protection of the former was strengthened by the addition of a concrete wall at least 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) in thickness and some of the armour removed from the turrets was used to protect the latter . The double bottom below the former positions of aft turrets was converted to hold fuel oil ; this increased the ships ' endurance to 9 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 17 @,@ 600 km ; 10 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 16 knots . A pair of Type 22 surface @-@ search <unk> were also fitted during the conversion . \n", ' The removal of the secondary armament , the rear turrets and their supporting structures was generally compensated by the addition of the flight deck , hangar , AA guns and more fuel , and the <unk> height increased <unk> metres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) to 2 @.@ 81 metres ( 9 ft 3 in ) at full load as a result of the reduction in the displacement by over 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ) to 40 @,@ <unk> tonnes ( 39 @,@ 805 long tons ) . This also reduced the draught to 9 @.@ 03 metres ( 29 ft 8 in ) . The overhang of the flight deck at the stern increased the overall length to 219 @.@ 62 metres ( 720 ft 6 in ) and the beam was slightly reduced to 31 @.@ 71 metres ( 104 ft 0 in ) . \n', '', ' = = Ships = = \n', '', '', ' = = Service = = \n', '', " Upon commissioning , the sister ships were assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the 1st Fleet . <unk> had an explosion in one of her main gun turrets that killed 11 men and injured 25 in 1919 ; the following year she accidentally collided with and sank a schooner , losing two crewmen . Before the start of the Pacific War , both ships frequently exercised off the coasts of the Soviet Union , Korea and China in addition to training in Japanese waters . <unk> hosted Edward , Prince of Wales , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp Lieutenant Louis <unk> in 1922 during the prince 's visit to Japan . In Korea Bay when the 1923 Great <unk> earthquake struck , they sailed to <unk> where they loaded supplies from for the victims on 4 September . Together with two other battleships and a pair of light cruisers , <unk> sank the destroyer <unk> in 1926 during gunnery practice . <unk> 's AA armament was upgraded in 1931 and <unk> 's two years later . The latter ship was modernized in 1934 – 36 and <unk> in 1935 – 37 , both at <unk> Naval Arsenal . During the Second <unk> @-@ Japanese War , the sisters frequently patrolled the Chinese coast in support of the blockade imposed by Japan . In August 1937 <unk> ferried two battalions of Special Naval Landing Forces to Port Arthur . Three years later , she served as the flagship for the Emperor of the puppet state of <unk> , Henry <unk> @-@ <unk> , during his state visit to Japan in June 1940 . On 15 November the ships were transferred to the 2nd Battleship Division of the 1st Fleet . The sisters were refitted in late 1940 in preparation for war , which included the fitting of external <unk> <unk> and additional AA directors . \n", '', ' = = = World War II = = = \n', '', ' When Japan began the Pacific War on 8 December , the sisters sortied for the <unk> Islands with four other battleships and the light carrier <unk> as distant cover for the fleet attacking Pearl Harbor , and returned six days later . On 11 March 1942 <unk> and <unk> sortied from their anchorage at <unk> to join the unsuccessful search for the American carrier force that had attacked Marcus Island a week earlier . Similarly they pursued but did not catch the American carriers that had launched the <unk> Raid on 18 April . \n', " During gunnery training on 5 May , there was a premature detonation in the left gun of <unk> 's <unk> No. 5 that disabled both guns and killed 51 crewmen . Both aft magazines were flooded to <unk> the resulting fire and save the ship . She received temporary repairs during which the turret was removed and replaced by a circular armour plate on which three triple 25 mm gun mounts were positioned . On 11 May a valve in <unk> 's No. 2 engine room stuck in the open position and flooded the engine room . While under repair at <unk> , both ships received prototype Type 21 <unk> . <unk> by Vice @-@ Admiral <unk> <unk> , the 2nd Battleship Division set sail with the <unk> Support Group on 28 May , at the same time that most of the Imperial Fleet began an attack on Midway Island ( Operation <unk> ) . \n", ' They returned home on 14 June and the <unk> began preliminary planning to replace the lost carriers with hybrid carriers converted from battleships . The sisters were selected for conversion and detached from the division on 14 July in preparation . They remained on " standby alert " until the actual <unk> began . <unk> was converted at <unk> Naval Arsenal from 23 February to 5 September 1943 and <unk> at <unk> Naval Arsenal from 2 May to 30 November . \n', " After completing her sea trials , <unk> was attached to the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy at <unk> and ferried troops and munitions to the naval base at <unk> in October . In November the ship began working up , joined by the newly completed <unk> the following month , and both rejoined the 2nd Battleship Division . On 1 May 1944 , the sisters were transferred to Rear Admiral <unk> <unk> 's reformed Fourth Carrier Division of the 3rd Fleet . The division 's <unk> Naval Air Group was formed that same day and conducted its first catapult launches in late June . \n", '', ' = = = = Battle of Cape <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> of aircraft and <unk> problems greatly <unk> pilot training and the ships only had a total of 17 <unk> and 18 <unk> on hand on 1 October ; of these , only 6 and 16 were operational , respectively . The Japanese plan for the defence of the Philippines envisioned that the surviving carriers would be used to lure the American carrier forces away from the invasion area to a position where the carriers could be attacked by land @-@ based aircraft and the transports by the rest of the <unk> . The other carrier air groups were not in much better shape and the Japanese decided to retain the aircraft ashore for use against the American carriers . The Fourth Carrier Division was assigned to the Northern Force under the command of Vice Admiral <unk> Ozawa and the sisters sailed from <unk> on 20 October . On the morning of 24 October , the bulk of the few aircraft aboard were launched to attack the American carriers as a distraction . They inflicted no damage and caused the Americans to search in the direction from which they had attacked . The Americans finally spotted the Japanese carriers at 16 : 40 , some 200 miles ( 320 km ) east of Cape <unk> , the northeastern tip of Luzon . The American carriers were spread out and it was very late in the day to launch an <unk> , so Admiral William <unk> , commander of the Third Fleet decided to mass his carriers in a position to attack the following morning . Ozawa reversed course during the night , correctly believing that the Americans would follow him north . \n', " Although they had lost contact during the night , the Americans did find the Japanese carriers at 07 : 35 . They had already launched an <unk> of 180 aircraft that was orbiting 50 miles ( 80 km ) ahead of the American carriers while waiting for the Japanese ships to be located . This was just the first of a total of five airstrikes that the Americans launched that day . The sisters were not heavily engaged by the early airstrikes which are focusing on the group 's aircraft carriers . <unk> claimed to have shot down five attacking dive bombers from the second wave and one small bomb detonated on <unk> No. 2 . <unk> was lightly damaged by near misses that rupture some hull plating in her <unk> and <unk> her superstructure with splinters . She took on a 5 @-@ degree list that was quickly corrected before she was ordered to tow the crippled carrier <unk> to safety . Her attempt was unsuccessful and <unk> had to be abandoned to her fate . \n", ' <unk> was attacked by 80 @-@ odd aircraft from the fourth wave , but they failed to inflict any serious damage . She <unk> 11 torpedoes and was only hit by a bomb once , on the <unk> <unk> of the port catapult . Some 34 other bombs near missed her , spraying her with splinters and <unk> some hull plates that contaminated some fuel oil and caused leaks in her port boiler rooms . While an exact total of her casualties is not available , it has been estimated that 5 men were killed and some 111 – 121 crewmen were wounded during this attack . <unk> was unsuccessfully attacked by an American submarine at 18 : 43 . Around 19 : 00 Ozawa learned about a force of destroyers and cruisers that drove off the Japanese destroyers rescuing survivors from some of the carriers lost earlier in the day and sank <unk> . He ordered the Fourth Carrier Division to reverse course and engage the Americans , but the battleships were unable to find them , and Ozawa ordered them to reverse course and head for <unk> <unk> . When they arrived on 27 October , Ozawa transferred to <unk> and <unk> his flag aboard her . While en route for <unk> , the division was unsuccessfully attacked by another submarine . \n', ' In early November the <unk> were removed from both ships , and they loaded troops and munitions later that month . While en route they were diverted to the <unk> Islands upon reports of heavy air raids at Manila . After off @-@ loading their cargo , they sailed for <unk> Island , near Singapore , on 20 November . They transferred to Cam <unk> Bay , French Indochina and <unk> became flagship of the 5th Fleet there on 14 December . The division sailed for Singapore on 30 December and Vice Admiral <unk> <unk> transferred his flag to the light cruiser <unk> on arrival there the following day . The division continued onwards to <unk> . Its planned return to Japan was delayed by attacks by the American Third Fleet on targets in Indochina and southern China that sank two oil tankers that were intended to refuel the division . \n', ' The <unk> then decided to use the sisters and their escorts to bring a load of petrol , rubber , tin and other strategic minerals back to Japan after the American carriers departed the South China Sea ( Operation <unk> ) . They loaded their cargoes beginning on 6 February at Singapore and departed four days later . Also carrying some 1 @,@ 150 <unk> workers , they were escorted by <unk> and three destroyers . <unk> Japanese radio signals revealed the Japanese plan to the Allies , and 15 submarines were positioned along their anticipated route in an attempt to intercept and sink the ships . An additional 11 were moved into position while the group was en route , but only three were ultimately able to attack . None of them were successful before the Japanese reached <unk> on 20 February . The Fourth Carrier Division was disbanded on 1 March and the sisters were reduced to 1st rank reserve ships . On 19 March <unk> was attacked by aircraft from Task Force 58 and <unk> was hit three times by bombs that killed 37 men and wounded 52 . Her gunners claimed to have shot down one American dive bomber during the attack . <unk> was hit twice during the attack , but her casualties , if any , are unknown . \n', " The ships were turned into floating AA batteries over the next several months although it <unk> them little when they were attacked again by American carrier aircraft in July . On the 24th <unk> was struck by five bombs and near missed multiple times ; all told she lost 50 crewmen killed and many others wounded . The bombs started numerous leaks and <unk> began to settle by the bow , although she was returned to an even keel after three @-@ days pumping . <unk> was a primary focus of the attack and she received 10 direct hits and up to 30 near misses . She was badly damaged with some 200 @-@ odd crewmen killed and 600 wounded during the attack . She slowly <unk> over the next two days and was not attacked when the Americans returned four days later . This time it was <unk> 's turn and she was struck 11 or more times with many near misses that put her on the bottom in shallow water with a 15 degree list . The sisters were struck off the Navy List in November and their wrecks were scrapped after the war . \n", '', '', ' = Dick <unk> = \n', '', ' Richard Gale " Dick " <unk> ( August 21 , 1926 – December 5 , 1994 ) was an American football player and a pioneering television broadcaster for the forerunner to <unk> @-@ TV in Buffalo . He played college football for the University of Michigan Wolverines in 1944 and from 1946 to 1948 . He was a consensus selection at end on the 1948 College Football All @-@ America Team . <unk> played professionally in the National Football League ( NFL ) with the Detroit Lions for one season in 1950 . After retiring from football he settled in Buffalo and became a sports broadcaster . He worked as a color commentator and as a play @-@ by @-@ play announcer for the Buffalo Bulls . He hosted various television and radio sports shows and was eventually inducted into the Buffalo <unk> Hall of Fame . \n', " In college , he led the Big Ten Conference in single season receptions during his senior year and set Michigan Wolverines receptions records for both career touchdown and single @-@ season touchdowns . He had also been a Michigan High School Athletic Association ( <unk> ) state champion in both basketball and track and field . His college career was interrupted by World War II service , and his high school career was also affected by the war due to the <unk> 's cancellation of state championships in all sports in 1943 . \n", '', ' = = High school = = \n', '', " <unk> was born in <unk> , Michigan , and raised in Kalamazoo , Michigan before his family moved to Saginaw , Michigan . <unk> was a star athlete at Saginaw 's Arthur Hill High School in football , basketball , and track and field . In 1943 , Michigan canceled boys high school tournaments in all sports due to World War II , and they did not return until the fall of 1944 . In 1944 , he led Arthur Hill High to the <unk> Class A high school basketball championship ( over Kalamazoo Central High School ) , scoring 24 points , including 17 in the second half , of the championship game . <unk> was also the state champion in 1944 in both the shot put 46 feet 11 inches ( 14 @.@ 30 m ) and high jump 5 feet 8 @.@ 5 inches ( 1 @.@ 74 m ) . He also led Arthur Hill in football , and his high school accomplishments are featured in Glory : The history of Saginaw County sports by Jack <unk> ( ASIN <unk> ) , which is a book on high school sports in Saginaw County , Michigan . <unk> was named All State in football , basketball and track . \n", " It is ironic that <unk> was born in <unk> , Michigan in 1926 for several reasons . Ted <unk> preceded <unk> as an All @-@ American end on the University of Michigan football team . <unk> had excelled as a representative of Saginaw County in <unk> competition . <unk> posted significant football accomplishments in 1926 making 1926 a significant year for himself as well . <unk> All @-@ American status as an end at Michigan would be <unk> 's next step after <unk> in <unk> competition . \n", '', ' = = College = = \n', '', ' In the fall of 1944 , <unk> enrolled at the University of Michigan . The United Press syndicate ran a feature article about <unk> in September 1944 that opened as follows : " Another great end has made his appearance on the Big Ten football horizon in the person of Dick <unk> , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Michigan freshman . Every so often a great offensive end comes along , a player who has to learn how to play defense , but who has the natural speed , smooth actions , height and big hands that is the mark of an outstanding pass receiver . <unk> has laid claim to that rating . A loose @-@ <unk> 180 @-@ pound freshman from Saginaw , <unk> . , <unk> is being <unk> as the Big Ten \'s next \' freshman sensation . \' " As a freshman , he caught two touchdown passes in his first college football game against Iowa . In an article titled " <unk> and <unk> , " Time reported on <unk> \'s performance : " Of the few teams already in action , Michigan \'s teens rang the freshman bell <unk> last week by winning their opener , 12 <unk> @-@ 7 , against the strong Iowa Seahawks ( Naval Pre @-@ Flight ) ; 6 @-@ ft . 4 Freshman End Dick <unk> caught passes and ran for both Michigan touchdowns . " \n', ' <unk> \'s college career was interrupted by World War II service in the United States Navy , but after missing the 1945 season , he returned to play for the Wolverines from 1946 to 1948 . <unk> played for the Wolverines in consecutive undefeated National Championship seasons in 1947 and 1948 . He started nine games for the 1947 team . The 1947 team referred to as " Michigan \'s Mad <unk> " is considered to be the greatest University of Michigan football team of all time . <unk> and teammate Len Ford had the reputation as the team practical <unk> . During the 1947 game against Wisconsin , <unk> started calling signals for the <unk> . Wisconsin \'s offense protested to officials , who " <unk> the Wolverines secondary but never caught their man . " <unk> continued to scramble <unk> signals , as <unk> \'s teammates laughed at his scheme . In the January 1 , 1948 Rose Bowl that season , Michigan rolled to a 49 – 0 victory over USC , and they <unk> the Trojans 491 yards to 133 . <unk> caught a 29 @-@ yard pass for the game \'s final score . \n', ' In the 1948 championship season , <unk> scored eight touchdowns , caught 22 passes , and gained 610 yards ( 508 receiving and 102 rushing ) . <unk> was the second highest scoring end in the nation in 1948 , and he was a consensus All @-@ American as a senior , being selected as first team on nine of the 11 All @-@ American teams . <unk> led the Big Ten in receptions . \n', " Although <unk> finished fourth among <unk> <unk> voters in 1948 , he did not finish among the top eight . By comparison , Notre Dame end Leon Hart won the <unk> Trophy in 1949 but made only eight of the 11 All @-@ American teams . It is not clear why <unk> did not finish higher . However , it is fairly clear that sportswriters of that era had a bias against Michigan . In the Associated Press poll at the end of the 1947 season , the Notre Dame Fighting Irish were ranked ahead of the University of Michigan , though both teams were undefeated . Some noted that every Southern AP <unk> had voted for Notre Dame , which had yet to integrate , whereas three of Michigan 's star players ( Bob Mann , Gene <unk> , and Len Ford ) were African @-@ American . The Southern schools refused even to schedule games against schools that played African @-@ American players . \n", " <unk> was considered one of the greatest <unk> 's of the 1940s . In four seasons with the Michigan Wolverines , <unk> played in 32 games and had over 1 @,@ 000 yards of total offense . <unk> held the University of Michigan 's single season and career record for touchdown receptions ( eight in a season ; sixteen career ) until his records were broken by Anthony Carter in 1980 . \n", '', ' = = Professional career = = \n', '', ' In 1948 , <unk> was drafted by the Philadelphia Eagles in the 15th round of the NFL draft , and he was also drafted by the New York Yankees of the All @-@ America Football Conference . He had intended to play in 1949 with the Yankees , but suffered a knee injury in a practice session for the August 1949 Chicago College All @-@ Star Game . Press accounts at the time noted that the injury " will probably keep him out of pro football all season , if not forever . " The incident led to a debate as to whether NFL owners should " bar their men from playing with the college all @-@ stars . " \n', " <unk> landed a job at <unk> radio in Detroit , but he left his <unk> 's job to join the Detroit Lions . In the 1950 NFL season , <unk> came back from his injury to play for the Detroit Lions . He played in 12 games and had ten receptions for 96 yards and one touchdown for the 1950 Lions . <unk> recalled that his playing time with the Lions was limited because the Lions also signed 1949 <unk> Trophy winner Leon Hart , who played the same position . \n", ' In May 1951 , he announced he was retiring from professional football to become sports director at a radio station in Buffalo . He was hired as a <unk> by <unk> ( now known as <unk> ) , which had just started the first television station in Buffalo and the only one serving Southern Ontario . This was an early foray into television by the Buffalo Evening News . In the 1950s , <unk> hosted a popular panel show called " Let \'s Talk Sports " in Buffalo and also pioneered an early morning exercise program . He also worked for <unk> ( AM ) and <unk> ( FM ) and as the <unk> announcer for Buffalo Bills games along with Van Miller , the long time Bills play @-@ by @-@ play announcer . In addition , he served as the play @-@ by @-@ play announcer for the University of Buffalo Bulls football team . As a radio broadcaster , he is remembered for things ranging from <unk> reports , to 17 years worth of " <unk> At — " programs live from various local restaurants , to 27 years as the <unk> @-@ AM All Night Show host . \n', " After 30 years with <unk> and a change in ownership for the station , his show was replaced with the <unk> Network 's The Larry King Show . In the 1980s , <unk> taught communications at Buffalo 's <unk> College and served as a disc jockey on Public Broadcasting 's radio station <unk> ( now <unk> ) . He also sold <unk> for Buffalo Evening News competitor , Buffalo Courier @-@ Express . <unk> 's final employer was Erie County , who hired him as an inmate training supervisor at the Erie County <unk> <unk> . \n", ' <unk> was posthumously inducted into the Buffalo <unk> Hall of Fame in September 2007 . He was given the Golden Age Award which is reserved for " those who did it first , the people who had no pattern to follow . " The Hall of Fame award was presented to <unk> \'s wife , Jane . In her acceptance speech , Jane <unk> observed that despite all of her late husband \'s achievements , there was one thing he had never received : " He had a great career , but he never had a trophy . And now he has . " \n', '', ' = = Family = = \n', '', ' <unk> lived 37 of his years in Buffalo . His wife , the former Jane Morris , was the head of the Buffalo <unk> <unk> when they met . <unk> , who was survived by three sons , ( Douglas A. , Gary R. , and Bruce R. ) one daughter ( Wendy J. <unk> ) and two grandchildren , died in <unk> , New York in December 1994 ; he was 68 years old . Doug was a 1988 first team football All @-@ Western New York linebacker for Clarence High School . \n', '', '', ' = 1933 Treasure Coast hurricane = \n', '', ' The 1933 Treasure Coast hurricane was the second @-@ most intense tropical cyclone to strike the United States during the active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season . The eleventh tropical storm , fifth hurricane , and the third major hurricane of the season , it formed east @-@ northeast of the Leeward Islands on August 31 . The tropical storm moved rapidly west @-@ northwestward , steadily intensifying to a hurricane . It acquired peak winds of 140 miles per hour ( 225 km / h ) and passed over portions of the Bahamas on September 3 , including <unk> and Harbour Island , causing severe damage to crops , buildings , and infrastructure . Winds over 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) affected many islands in its path , especially those that encountered its center , and many wharves were ruined . \n', ' Subsequently , it weakened and made landfall at Jupiter , Florida , early on September 4 with winds of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . The hurricane moved across the state , passing near Tampa before moving into Georgia and dissipating . In Florida , the strong winds of the cyclone blew buildings off their foundations , and numerous trees were <unk> in citrus groves . The Treasure Coast region received the most extensive destruction , and Stuart , Jupiter , and Fort Pierce were heavily damaged . Inland , the cyclone weakened rapidly but produced prodigious amounts of rain , causing a dam to collapse near Tampa . The storm caused $ 3 million in damage ( 1933 USD ) after damaging or destroying 6 @,@ <unk> homes . \n', ' Unusually , the storm hit Florida less than 24 hours before another major hurricane bearing 125 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 201 km / h ) winds struck South Texas ; never have two major cyclones hit the United States in such close succession . \n', '', ' = = Meteorological history = = \n', '', ' The origins of the hurricane were from a tropical wave that possibly spawned a tropical depression on August 27 , although there was minimal data over the next few days as it tracked to the west @-@ northwest . On August 31 , a nearby ship reported gale force winds , which indicated that a tropical storm had developed to the east @-@ northeast of the Lesser Antilles . Based on continuity , it is estimated the storm attained hurricane status later that day . Moving quickly to the west @-@ northwest , the storm passed north of the Lesser Antilles and Puerto Rico . Early on September 2 , a ship called the <unk> reported a barometric pressure of 978 mbar ( 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) , which confirmed that the storm attained hurricane status . After passing north of the Turks and <unk> islands , the hurricane struck <unk> and Harbour Island in the Bahamas on September 3 , the latter at 1100 UTC . A station on the latter island reported a pressure of 27 @.@ 90 inHg ( <unk> mb ) during the 30 minute passage of the eye . Based on the pressure and the small size of the storm , it is estimated the hurricane struck Harbour Island with peak winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) , making it the equivalent of a modern Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . <unk> suggested that the storm reached major hurricane status , or Category 3 status , on September 2 . \n', " The hurricane initially followed the course of another hurricane that passed through the area in late August , which ultimately struck Cuba and Texas . This hurricane instead maintained a general west @-@ northwest track . After moving through the northern Bahamas , the hurricane weakened slightly before making landfall at Jupiter , Florida , at <unk> UTC on September 4 . A station there reported a pressure of 27 @.@ 98 inHg ( <unk> mb ) during a 40 minute period of the eye 's passage ; this suggested a landfall strength of 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . At the time , the radius of maximum winds was 15 mi ( 24 km ) , which was smaller than average . After landfall , the hurricane weakened rapidly while crossing the state . It briefly emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a tropical storm early on September 5 . A few hours later while continuing to the northwest , it made another landfall near <unk> — a ghost town in Levy County , east of Cedar Key — with winds of about 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) . Turning to the north , the storm slowly weakened as it crossed into Georgia , dissipating on September 7 near Augusta . \n", '', ' = = Preparations and impact = = \n', '', ' On September 2 , a fleet of eight aircraft evacuated all white residents from West End , Grand <unk> , to <unk> Beach , Florida . While the storm was near peak intensity on September 3 , the Weather Bureau issued hurricane warnings from Miami to Melbourne , Florida , with storm warnings extending northward to Jacksonville . Later that day , storm warnings , were issued from Key West to Cedar Key . About 2 @,@ 500 people evacuated by train from areas around Lake Okeechobee . By evening on September 3 , high tides sent sea <unk> over coastal <unk> in Palm Beach County as residents boarded up buildings ; structures on <unk> Street in West Palm Beach were said to be a " solid front " of <unk> . Along the coast , observers reported very rough seas as the eye neared land . \n', " The powerful hurricane moved over or near several islands in the Bahamas . Winds on Spanish Wells and Harbour Island were both estimated at around 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . Winds reached 110 mph ( 177 km / h ) at Governor 's Harbour , 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) on <unk> , and 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) on the <unk> Islands . The storm was farther away from Nassau , where winds reached 61 mph ( 98 km / h ) . The hurricane damaged a lumber mill on <unk> , <unk> away a dock . Heavy damage occurred on Harbour Island , including to several roofs , the walls of government buildings , and the water system . The hurricane destroyed four churches and 37 houses , leaving 100 people homeless . A 1 @.@ 5 mi ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) road on <unk> was destroyed . Several islands sustained damage to farms , including the total loss of various fruit trees on Russell Island . Despite Category 4 winds on Spanish Wells , only five houses were destroyed , although most of the remaining dwellings lost their roofs . <unk> between North Point , James <unk> , and Gregory Town on <unk> , the storm destroyed 55 houses and damaged many others . On Grand <unk> , where a 9 to 12 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 7 m ) storm surge was reported , half of the houses were destroyed , as were 13 boats and two planes , and most docks were wrecked . \n", ' When the storm moved ashore in Florida , winds reached an estimated 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) in Jupiter ; these occurred after the eye passed . In West Palm Beach , <unk> measured at least 80 @-@ mile @-@ per @-@ hour ( 129 km / h ) winds with gusts to 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) ; <unk> ranged from 28 @.@ 64 to 28 @.@ 78 inHg ( 970 to <unk> mb ) . The storm produced the strongest winds in the city since the 1928 Okeechobee hurricane . Winds were not as strong farther from the center ; 40 to 45 mph ( 64 to 72 km / h ) winds were observed in Miami to the south , <unk> to the north , and Tampa on the west coast . Fort Pierce estimated peak winds of 80 to 90 mph ( 129 to 145 km / h ) , and pressures dipped to 29 @.@ 14 inHg ( <unk> mb ) . Inland , winds near Lake Okeechobee peaked at only 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The hurricane dropped heavy rainfall along its path , peaking at 17 @.@ 8 in ( 450 mm ) in <unk> . \n', ' At West Palm Beach , the majority of the damage was confined to vegetation . Several <unk> and royal <unk> that withstood the 1928 hurricane snapped , <unk> streets with broken trunks . Winds downed road signs on many streets , and <unk> covered the <unk> on a local golf course . Some <unk> and isolated structures , mostly lightweight , were partly or totally destroyed , along with a lumber warehouse . Some homes that lost roofing shingles had water damage to their interiors as well . Nearby Lake Worth sustained extensive breakage of windows , including plate glass , and loss of tile and <unk> roofing , but preparations reduced losses to just several thousand dollars , and no post @-@ storm accidents took place . Strong winds snapped many light poles in the city , and trees and shrubs were broken or uprooted . As in Lake Worth , officials in West Palm Beach credited preparations and stringent building codes with reducing overall damage . The city had learned from previous experience with severe storms in 1926 , 1928 , and 1929 . High tides eroded Ocean Boulevard at several spots and disrupted access to several bridges on the Lake Worth <unk> . Winter estates and hotels on Palm Beach generally sustained little material damage , except to vegetation , and county properties went largely unscathed . \n', ' In Martin and St. Lucie counties , the storm was considered among the worst on record . The storm leveled some homes and swept many others off their foundations . At Stuart , winds removed or badly damaged 75 % of the roofs in town . The storm destroyed the third floor of the building that housed a bowling <unk> and the Stuart News , a local newspaper . At <unk> , an abandoned settlement also known as <unk> Beach , strong winds leveled the old <unk> Inn , a gas station , and the second floor of a <unk> building . Winds also tore the roof off an ice plant . A bridge leading to the barrier island from <unk> was partly wrecked ; the bridge tender survived by gripping the <unk> during the storm . Winds leveled his nearby home . According to the Monthly Weather Review , some of the most severe damage from the storm in Florida was at <unk> . The storm left many homes in <unk> Sound <unk> , forcing crews to tear them down . Winter estates on the island , however , were better built and little damaged . While Stuart and <unk> Sound sustained significant damage , Port <unk> suffered <unk> . In Stuart , the storm left 400 to 500 people homeless , up to nearly 10 % of the population , which was 5 @,@ 100 at the time . Between Jupiter and Fort Pierce , the storm knocked down power and telegraph lines . In the latter city , high waves washed out a portion of the causeway . In the 1980s , an elderly resident recalled that the storm was the most severe on record in Fort Pierce . \n', ' <unk> damage was worst along the Indian River <unk> ; several farms in Stuart experienced total losses , and <unk> , 16 % of the citrus crop , or 4 million boxes , were destroyed . Many chicken <unk> in Stuart were destroyed , and the local chicken population was scattered and dispersed as far as <unk> . Across southeastern Florida , the hurricane damaged 6 @,@ <unk> houses and destroyed another <unk> , causing over $ 3 million in damage . One person , an African American farm worker , was killed when his <unk> blew down in Gomez , a <unk> died after seven <unk> <unk> , and a child was killed by airborne debris . \n', ' High rainfall caused flooding across Florida , notably near Tampa where waters reached 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) deep . High rainfall of over 7 in ( 180 mm ) caused a dam operated by Tampa Electric Co. to break 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) northeast of Tampa along the <unk> River . The break resulted in severe local damage , flooding portions of <unk> Springs . Workers attempted to save the dam with <unk> , and after the break , most residents in the area were warned of the approaching flood . Over 50 homes were flooded , forcing about 150 people to evacuate . Outside Florida , the storm produced winds of 48 and 51 mph ( 78 and 81 km / h ) in Savannah , Georgia and Charleston , South Carolina , respectively . In the latter city , the storm spawned a tornado , which caused about $ 10 @,@ 000 in property damage . Heavy rainfall occurred along the Georgia and South Carolina coasts , reaching over 12 in ( 300 mm ) . Light rainfall also extended into North Carolina . \n', '', ' = = Aftermath = = \n', '', ' In the Bahamas after the storm , a boat sailed from Nassau to deliver food and building materials to <unk> . \n', " After the storm , the National Guard offered shelters for at least 400 homeless residents in Stuart . Of the 7 @,@ 900 families adversely affected by the hurricane , 4 @,@ 325 required assistance from the American Red Cross . <unk> in Texas , also affected by a major hurricane , requested <unk> in Florida wait 15 days so they could sell their citrus crop that fell . The damaged dam near Tampa initially resulted in waters from the <unk> River being pumped into the city 's water treatment plant , and a new dam was eventually built in 1944 . \n", '', '', ' = Second Battle of <unk> <unk> = \n', '', ' The Second Battle of <unk> <unk> was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( <unk> ) forces early in the Korean War from September 1 to September 15 , 1950 , along the <unk> River in South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops repelled a strong North Korean attack . \n', " After the First Battle of <unk> <unk> , the US Army 's 2nd Infantry Division was moved to defend the <unk> River line . The division , which was <unk> in combat , was struck with a strong attack by several divisions of the Korean People 's Army which crossed the river and struck all along the division 's line . The force of the attack split the US 2nd Infantry Division in half , and the North Koreans were able to penetrate to <unk> , promoting a fight there . \n", ' The urgency of the threat to Pusan Perimeter prompted the US Marine Corps 1st Provisional Marine Brigade to be brought in to reinforce the US Army troops . In two weeks of heavy fighting , the US forces were able to force the North Koreans out of the <unk> <unk> region . The North Koreans were further repulsed after the UN counterattack at <unk> , which culminated in the virtual destruction of the North Korean army . \n', '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Pusan Perimeter = = = \n', '', " From the outbreak of the Korean War and the invasion of South Korea by the North , the North Korean People 's Army had enjoyed superiority in both manpower and equipment over both the Republic of Korea Army and the United Nations forces dispatched to South Korea to prevent it from collapsing . The North Korean strategy was to aggressively pursue UN and ROK forces on all avenues of approach south and to engage them aggressively , attacking from the front and initiating a double <unk> of both flanks of the unit , which allowed the North Koreans to surround and cut off the opposing force , which would then be forced to retreat in <unk> , often leaving behind much of its equipment . From their initial June 25 offensive to fights in July and early August , the North Koreans used this strategy to effectively defeat any UN force and push it south . However , when the UN forces , under the Eighth United States Army , established the Pusan Perimeter in August , the UN troops held a continuous line along the peninsula which North Korean troops could not flank , and their advantages in numbers decreased daily as the superior UN logistical system brought in more troops and supplies to the UN army . \n", " When the North Koreans approached the Pusan Perimeter on August 5 , they attempted the same frontal assault technique on the four main avenues of approach into the perimeter . Throughout August , the <unk> 6th Division , and later the <unk> 7th Division engaged the US 25th Infantry Division at the Battle of <unk> , initially <unk> a UN counteroffensive before <unk> with battles at <unk> @-@ <unk> and Battle Mountain . These attacks stalled as UN forces , well equipped and with plenty of reserves , repeatedly repelled North Korean attacks . North of <unk> , the <unk> 4th Division and the US 24th Infantry Division <unk> in the <unk> <unk> area . In the First Battle of <unk> <unk> , the North Korean division was unable to hold its bridgehead across the river as large numbers of US reserve forces were brought in to repel it , and on August 19 , the <unk> 4th Division was forced back across the river with 50 percent casualties . In the <unk> region , five North Korean divisions were repulsed by three UN divisions in several attempts to attack the city during the Battle of <unk> . Particularly heavy fighting took place at the Battle of the <unk> <unk> where the <unk> 13th Division was almost completely destroyed in the attack . On the east coast , three more North Korean divisions were repulsed by the South Koreans at P 'ohang @-@ dong during the Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong . All along the front , the North Korean troops were <unk> from these defeats , the first time in the war their strategies were not working . \n", '', ' = = = September push = = = \n', '', ' In planning its new offensive , the North Korean command decided any attempt to flank the UN force was impossible thanks to the support of the UN navy . Instead , they opted to use frontal attack to breach the perimeter and collapse it as the only hope of achieving success in the battle . <unk> by intelligence from the Soviet Union the North Koreans were aware the UN forces were building up along the Pusan Perimeter and that it must conduct an offensive soon or it could not win the battle . A secondary objective was to surround <unk> and destroy the UN and ROK units in that city . As part of this mission , the North Korean units would first cut the supply lines to <unk> . \n', ' On August 20 , the North Korean commands distributed operations orders to their subordinate units . The North Koreans called for a simultaneous five @-@ <unk> attack against the UN lines . These attacks would overwhelm the UN defenders and allow the North Koreans to break through the lines in at least one place to force the UN forces back . Five battle groupings were ordered . The center attack called for the <unk> 9th Division , <unk> 4th Division , <unk> 2nd Division , and <unk> 10th Division break through the US 2nd Infantry Division at the <unk> <unk> to <unk> and <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Battle = = \n', '', " During the North Koreans ' September 1 offensive , the US 25th Infantry Division 's US 35th Infantry Regiment was heavily engaged in the Battle of <unk> River north of <unk> . On the 35th Regiment 's right flank , just north of the confluence of the <unk> River and the <unk> River , was the US 9th Infantry Regiment , US 2nd Infantry Division . There , in the southernmost part of the 2nd Infantry Division zone , the 9th Infantry Regiment held a sector more than 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) long , including the <unk> area of the <unk> where the First Battle of <unk> <unk> had taken place earlier in August . Each US infantry company on the river line here had a front of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) and they held only key hills and observation points , as the units were extremely spread out along the wide front . \n", " During the last week of August , US troops on these hills could see minor North Korean activity across the river , which they thought was North Koreans organizing the high ground on the west side of the <unk> against a possible American attack . There were occasional attacks on the 9th Infantry 's forward positions , but to the men in the front lines this appeared to be only a standard patrol action . On August 31 , the UN forces were alerted to a pending attack when much of the Korean civilian labor force fled the front lines . Intelligence officers reported an attack was coming . \n", " On the west side of the <unk> , North Korean Major General <unk> <unk> Sam , commanding the <unk> 9th Division , issued his operations order to the division on August 28 . Its mission in the forthcoming attack was to outflank and destroy the US troops at <unk> <unk> by capturing the <unk> and <unk> areas to cut off the US 2nd Division 's route of supply and withdrawal between <unk> and Pusan . However , the North Koreans weren 't aware that the US 2nd Infantry Division had recently replaced the US 24th Infantry Division in positions along the <unk> River . Consequently , they expected lighter resistance ; the 24th troops were exhausted from months of fighting but the 2nd Division men were fresh and newly arrived in Korea . They had only recently been moved into the line . The North Koreans began crossing the <unk> River under cover of darkness at certain points . \n", '', ' = = = Battle of <unk> = = = \n', '', ' On the southern @-@ most flank of the 9th Infantry river line , just above the junction of the <unk> River with the <unk> , A Company of the 1st Battalion was dug in on a long finger ridge <unk> the <unk> that terminates in Hill 94 at the <unk> ferry site . The river road from <unk> @-@ ri running west along the <unk> passes the southern tip of this ridge and crosses to the west side of the river at the ferry . A small village called <unk> lay at the base of Hill 94 and 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the river . A patrol of tanks and armored vehicles , together with two infantry squads of A Company , 9th Infantry , held a roadblock near the ferry and close to <unk> . On the evening of August 31 , A Company moved from its ridge positions overlooking <unk> and the river to new positions along the river below the ridge line . \n', " That evening Sergeant Ernest R. <unk> led the patrol of two <unk> <unk> tanks and two <unk> Gun Motor <unk> in <unk> . <unk> placed his patrol on the west side of <unk> near the <unk> ferry . At 20 : 00 a heavy fog covered the river , and at 22 : 00 mortar shells began falling on the American @-@ held side of the river . By 22 : 15 this strike intensified and North Korean mortar preparation struck A Company 's positions . American mortars and artillery began firing <unk> . Some of the A Company men reported they heard noises on the opposite side of the river and splashes in the water . \n", " At 22 : 30 the fog lifted and <unk> saw that a North Korean <unk> bridge was being laid across the river directly in front of his position . <unk> 's four vehicles attacked this structure , and after about a minute of heavy fire the bridge collapsed , and the <unk> boats used to hold the bridge in place were sunk . At 23 : 00 a small arms fight flared around the left side of A Company north of the tanks . This gunfire had lasted only two or three minutes when the A Company roadblock squads near the tanks received word by field telephone that the company was withdrawing to the original ridge positions and that they should do likewise . \n", " <unk> 's patrol was then ambushed by a group of North Koreans dressed in US military uniforms . <unk> was wounded and the other three vehicles had to withdraw , but he held the <unk> site until 07 : 30 the next morning with his single tank . In the attack against A Company , the North Koreans hit the 1st Platoon , which was near <unk> , but they did not find the 2nd Platoon northward . \n", " The <unk> 9th Division 's infantry crossing of the <unk> and attack on its east side near midnight quickly overran the positions of C Company , north of A Company . There the North Koreans assaulted in force , signaled by green flares and blowing of whistles . The company held its positions only a short time and then attempted to escape . Many of the men moved south , a few of them coming into A Company 's ridge line positions near <unk> during the night . Most of C Company moved all the way to the 25th Division positions south of the <unk> . On September 1 that division reported that 110 men of C Company had come into its lines . \n", '', ' = = = North Korean crossing = = = \n', '', " Meanwhile , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of <unk> and A Company 's position , B Company , 9th Infantry , held a similar position on Hill <unk> overlooking the <unk> ferry crossing of the river . This ferry was located at the middle of the <unk> <unk> where the <unk> road came down to the <unk> and crossed it . The US 2nd Infantry Division had planned a reconnaissance mission to start from there the night of August 31 , the same night that the <unk> I Corps offensive rolled across the river . \n", ' Near the end of the month two reconnaissance patrols from the 9th Infantry had crossed to the west side of the <unk> and observed North Korean tank and troop activity 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of the river . Information obtained later indicated it was in fact the command post of the <unk> 9th Division . On August 25 , 9th Infantry commander Colonel John G. Hill outlined projected " Operation <unk> , " which was to be a company @-@ sized combat patrol to cross the river , advance to the suspected North Korean command post and communications center , destroy it , capture prisoners , and collect intelligence . \n', ' The 9th Infantry Regiment had planned Task Force <unk> on orders from the 2nd Division commander Major General Laurence B. <unk> , which in turn had received instructions from Eighth United States Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker for aggressive patrolling . <unk> decided the patrol should cross the river at the <unk> ferry . The 9th Infantry reserve , E Company , reinforced with one section of light machine guns from H Company , was to be the attack force . The 1st Platoon , 2nd Engineer Combat Battalion , was to transport it across the river in assault boats the night of August 31 . Two heavy weapons companies , D and H , were each to <unk> one section of heavy machine guns , one section of 81 @-@ <unk> mortars , and one section of 75 @-@ <unk> recoilless rifles for supporting fires . A platoon of 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortars was also to give support . \n', " After dark on August 31 , First Lieutenant Charles I. Caldwell of D Company and First Lieutenant Edward <unk> of H Company , 9th Infantry , moved their men and weapons to the base of Hill <unk> , which was within B Company 's defense sector and overlooked the <unk> ferry crossing of the <unk> River . The raiding force , E Company , was still in its regimental reserve position about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of <unk> , getting ready with the engineer platoon to move to the crossing site . Colonel Hill went forward in the evening with the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortar platoon to its position at the base of Hill <unk> where the <unk> prepared to set up their weapons . \n", " By 21 : 00 , the closest front line unit was B Company on top of Hill <unk> , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of the river road which curved around the hill 's southern base . The regimental <unk> , Captain Lewis B. Sheen , had gone forward in the afternoon to B Company to hold services . On top of Hill <unk> , <unk> Sheen and men in B Company after dark heard <unk> in the water below them . They soon discovered a long line of North Korean soldiers wading the river . \n", ' The first North Korean crossing at the <unk> ferry caught the Heavy <unk> Platoon unprepared in the act of setting up its weapons . It also caught most of the D and H Company men at the base of Hill <unk> , <unk> miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from the crossing site . The North Koreans killed or captured many of the troops there . Hill was there , but escaped to the rear just before midnight , together with several others , when the division canceled Operation <unk> because of the attacks . The first heavy weapons carrying party was on its way up the hill when the North Korean attack <unk> the men below . It <unk> on to the top where the advance group waited and there all hastily dug in on a small perimeter . This group was not attacked during the night . \n', ' From 21 : 30 until shortly after midnight the <unk> 9th Division crossed the <unk> at a number of places and climbed the hills quietly toward the 9th Infantry river line positions . Then , when the artillery barrage preparation lifted , the North Korean infantry were in position to launch their assaults . These began in the northern part of the regimental sector and quickly spread southward . At each crossing site the North Koreans would overwhelm local UN defenders before building <unk> bridges for their vehicles and armor . \n', " At 02 : 00 , B Company was attacked . A truck stopped at the bottom of the hill , a whistle sounded , then came a shouted order , and North Korean soldiers started climbing the slope . The hills on both sides of B Company were already under attack as was also Hill 311 , a rugged terrain feature a 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the river and the North Koreans ' principal immediate objective . The North Koreans apparently were not aware of the Task Force <unk> group lower down on the hill and it was not attacked during the night . But higher up on Hill <unk> the North Koreans drove B Company from its position , inflicting very heavy casualties on it . Sheen led one group of soldiers back to friendly lines on 4 September . \n", " At 03 : 00 , 1 September , the 9th Infantry Regiment ordered its only reserve , E Company to move west along the <unk> @-@ <unk> River road and take a blocking position at the pass between <unk> Hill and <unk> @-@ <unk> Ridge , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the river and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from <unk> . This was the critical terrain where so much heavy fighting had taken place in the first battle of the <unk> <unk> . Fighting began at the pass at 02 : 30 when an American medium tank of A Company , 72nd Tank Battalion , knocked out a T @-@ 34 at <unk> , also called <unk> . E Company never reached its blocking position . A strong North Korean force surprised and delivered heavy automatic fire on it at 03 : 30 from positions <unk> the road east of the pass . The company suffered heavy casualties , including the company commander and <unk> 's aide who had accompanied the force . With the critical parts of <unk> Hill and <unk> @-@ <unk> Ridge , the best defensive terrain between <unk> and the river , the North Koreans controlled the high ground . The US 2nd Infantry Division now had to base its defense of <unk> on relatively poor defensive terrain , the low hills at the western edge of the town . \n", '', ' = = = US 23rd Infantry attacked = = = \n', '', ' North of the 9th Infantry sector of the 2nd Infantry Division front along the <unk> , the US 23rd Infantry Regiment on August 29 had just relieved the 3rd Battalion of the US 38th Infantry Regiment , which in turn had only a few days before relieved the US 21st Infantry Regiment of the US 24th Infantry Division . On August 1 , the 23rd Regiment was in a new sector of which it had only a limited knowledge . It took over a 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) <unk> River front without its 3rd Battalion which had been attached to the US 1st Cavalry Division to the north . Colonel Paul L. Freeman , the regimental commander , deployed the 1st Battalion on the high ground along the river with the three companies abreast . The 1st Battalion , under US Lieutenant Colonel Claire E. <unk> , Jr . , <unk> the hills with platoons and squads . He placed the 2nd Battalion in a reserve position 8 miles ( 13 km ) behind the 1st Battalion and in a position where it commanded the road net in the regimental sector . On August <unk> the 2nd Division moved E Company south to a reserve position in the 9th Infantry sector . \n', ' Two roads ran through the regimental sector from the <unk> River to <unk> . The main road bent south along the east bank of the river to <unk> @-@ <unk> and then turned northeast to <unk> . A northern secondary road curved around <unk> and lakes , the largest of which was Lake U @-@ p <unk> , to <unk> . In effect , the 1st Battalion of the 23rd Regiment guarded these two approach routes to <unk> . \n', ' The 42 men of the 2nd Platoon , B Company , 23rd Infantry held outpost positions on seven hills covering a 2 @,@ 600 yards ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) front along the east bank of the <unk> north of <unk> @-@ <unk> . Across the river in the rice <unk> they could see , in the afternoon of August 31 , two large groups of North Korean soldiers . Occasionally artillery fire dispersed them . Just before dark , the platoon saw a column of North Koreans come out of the hills and proceed toward the river . They immediately reported to the battalion command post . The artillery forward observer , who estimated the column at 2 @,@ 000 people , thought they were refugees . Freeman immediately ordered the artillery to fire on the column , reducing its number . However the North Koreans continued their advance . \n', ' At 21 : 00 the first shells of what proved to be a two @-@ hour North Korean artillery and mortar preparation against the American river positions of 2nd Platoon . As the barrage rolled on , North Korean infantry crossed the river and climbed the hills in the darkness under cover of its fire . At 23 : 00 the barrage lifted and the North Koreans attacked 2nd Platoon , forcing it from the hill after a short fight . Similar assaults took place elsewhere along the battalion outpost line . \n', ' On the regimental left along the main <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> road North Korean soldiers completely overran C Company by 0300 September 1 . Only seven men of C Company could be accounted for , and three days later , after all the stragglers and those cut off behind North Korean lines had come in , there were only 20 men in the company . As the North Korean attack developed during the night , 1st Battalion succeeded in withdrawing a large part of its force , less C Company , just north of Lake U @-@ p <unk> and the hills there covering the northern road into <unk> , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) east of the river and 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of the town . B Company lost heavily in this action . \n', " When word of the disaster that had <unk> 1st Battalion reached regimental headquarters , Freeman obtained the release of G and F Companies from 2nd Division reserve and sent the former to help 1st Battalion and the latter on the southern road toward <unk> @-@ <unk> and C Company . Major Lloyd K. Jenson , executive officer of the 2nd Battalion , accompanied F Company down the <unk> @-@ <unk> road . This force was unable to reach C Company , but Jenson collected stragglers from it and seized high ground <unk> this main approach to <unk> near <unk> <unk> @-@ ri above Lake <unk> , and went into a defensive position there . The US 2nd Division released E Company to the regiment and the next day it joined F Company to build up what became the main defensive position of the <unk> Regiment in front of <unk> . North Korean troops during the night passed around the right flank of 1st Battalion 's northern blocking position and reached the road three miles behind him near the division artillery positions . The 23rd Infantry Headquarters and Service Companies and other <unk> regimental units finally stopped this penetration near the regimental command post 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northwest of <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = US 2nd Division split = = = \n', '', " Before the morning of 1 September had passed , reports coming in to US 2nd Division headquarters made it clear that North Koreans had penetrated to the north @-@ south <unk> @-@ <unk> road and cut the division in two ; the 38th and <unk> Infantry Regiments with the bulk of the division artillery in the north were separated from the division headquarters and the 9th Infantry Regiment in the south . <unk> decided that this situation made it <unk> to control and direct the divided division as two special forces . Accordingly , he placed the division artillery commander , Brigadier General Loyal M. Haynes , in command of the northern group . Haynes ' command post was 7 miles ( 11 km ) north of <unk> . Task Force Haynes became operational at 10 : 20 , September 1 . <unk> , in the <unk> area , <unk> placed Brigadier General Joseph S. Bradley , Assistant Division Commander , in charge of the 9th Infantry Regiment , the 2nd Engineer Combat Battalion , most of the 72nd Tank Battalion , and other <unk> units of the division . This southern grouping was known as Task Force Bradley . \n", ' All three regiments of the <unk> 2nd Division @-@ the 4th , 17th , and 6th , in line from north to south @-@ crossed during the night to the east side of the <unk> River into the 23rd Regiment sector . The <unk> 2nd Division , concentrated in the <unk> @-@ <unk> area west of the river , had , in effect , attacked straight east across the river and was trying to seize the two avenues of advance into <unk> above and below Lake U @-@ p <unk> . On August 31 , 1950 , Lake U @-@ p <unk> was a large body of water although in most places very shallow . \n', " At dawn September 1 , <unk> at 2nd Division headquarters in <unk> @-@ <unk> , 7 miles ( 11 km ) east of <unk> on the <unk> road , felt his division was in the midst of a crisis . The massive North Korean attack had made deep <unk> everywhere in the division sector except in the north in the zone of the 38th Infantry . The <unk> 9th Division had effected major <unk> of the <unk> at two principal points against the US 9th Infantry ; the <unk> 2nd Division in the meantime had made three major <unk> against the US 23rd Infantry ; and the <unk> 10th Division had begun crossing more troops in the Hill <unk> area near <unk> 'ung in the US 38th Infantry sector . At 08 : 10 <unk> telephoned Eighth Army headquarters and reported the heaviest and deepest North Korean <unk> were in the 9th Infantry sector . \n", ' <unk> planes rose from the division strip every hour to observe the North Korean progress and to locate US 2nd Infantry Division front @-@ line units . Communication from division and regimental headquarters to nearly all the forward units was broken . Beginning at 09 : 30 and continuing throughout the rest of the day , the light aviation section of the division artillery located front @-@ line units cut off by the North Koreans , and made fourteen <unk> of ammunition , food , water , and medical supplies . As information slowly built up at division headquarters it became apparent that the North Koreans had punched a hole 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) wide and 8 miles ( 13 km ) deep in the middle of the division line and made less severe <unk> elsewhere . The front @-@ line battalions of the US 9th and 23rd Regiments were in various states of <unk> and some companies had virtually disappeared . <unk> hoped he could organize a defense along the <unk> @-@ <unk> road east of the <unk> River , and prevent North Korean access to the passes eastward leading to <unk> and Ch <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Reinforcements = = = \n', '', ' At 09 : 00 Walker requested the US Air Force to make a maximum effort along the <unk> River from <unk> @-@ dong , just above the US 2nd Division boundary , southward and to a depth of 15 miles ( 24 km ) west of the river . He wanted the Air Force to isolate the battlefield and prevent further North Korean reinforcements and supplies from moving across the river in support of the North Korean spearhead units . The Far East Command requested the US Navy to join in the air effort , and the US Seventh Fleet turned back from its strikes in the <unk> <unk> @-@ Seoul area and <unk> southward at full steam toward the southern battle front . Walker came to the US 2nd Division front at 12 : 00 and ordered the division to hold at all costs . He had already ordered ground reinforcements to the <unk> area . \n', ' During the morning of 1 September , Walker weighed the news coming in from his southern front , <unk> in a decision as to which part of the front most needed his Pusan Perimeter reserves . Since midnight the <unk> I Corps had broken his Pusan Perimeter in two places @-@ the <unk> 2nd and 9th Divisions in the US 2nd Division sector , and the <unk> 7th Division and <unk> 6th Division in the US 25th Division sector , below the junction of the <unk> and <unk> Rivers . In the US 2nd Division sector North Korean troops were at the edge of <unk> , the gateway to the corridor leading 12 miles ( 19 km ) eastward to <unk> and the main Pusan @-@ <unk> railroad and highway . \n', " Eighth Army had in reserve three <unk> infantry regiments and the 2 @-@ battalion British 27th Infantry Brigade which was not yet completely equipped and ready to be placed in line : The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade at <unk> , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) northeast of <unk> , preparing for movement to the port of Pusan ; the US 27th Infantry Regiment of the 25th Division which had arrived at <unk> only the night before at 20 : 30 to relieve the 5th Regimental Combat Team , which was then to join the 24th Division in the <unk> area ; and the US 19th Infantry Regiment of the US 24th Infantry Division , then with that division 's headquarters at <unk> southeast of <unk> . Walker alerted both the 24th Division headquarters , together with its 19th Regiment , and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade to move at a moment 's notice ; the 24th Division either to the 2nd or 25th Division fronts , and the marines to an <unk> destination . \n", ' As the morning passed , General Walker decided that the situation was most critical in the <unk> <unk> area of the US 2nd Division sector . There the North Koreans threatened <unk> and with it the entire Eighth Army position . At 11 : 00 Walker ordered US Marine Corps Brigadier General Edward A. Craig , commanding the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade , to prepare the marines to move at once . The marines made ready to depart for the <unk> <unk> at 13 : 30 . \n', '', ' = = = North Korean advance = = = \n', '', ' The situation on the front was chaotic during the day September 1 . The North Koreans at one place had crossed at the <unk> ferry , captured <unk> , and scattered A Company , 9th Infantry at its positions from <unk> northward . A Company withdrew to positions on the ridge line back of the river . From there at daylight the men could see North Korean soldiers on many of the ridges surrounding them , most of them moving east . After several hours , 2nd Platoon of A Company sent a patrol down the hill to <unk> to obtain supplies abandoned there during the night , returning later with much needed water , rations , and ammunition . \n', ' Later in the morning North Korean barges crossed the <unk> below A Company . The company sent a squad with a light machine gun to the southern tip of the ridge overlooking <unk> to take these troops under fire . When the squad reached the tip of the ridge they saw that a North Korean force occupied houses at its base . The company hit these houses with artillery . The North Koreans broke from the houses , running for the river . At this the light machine gun at the tip of the ridge took them under fire , as did another across the <unk> to the south in the US 25th Infantry Division sector . <unk> <unk> artillery fire decimated this group . Combined fire from all weapons inflicted an estimated 300 casualties on this North Korean force . In the afternoon , US aircraft dropped food and ammunition to the company ; only part of it was recovered . The 1st Battalion ordered A Company to withdraw the company that night . \n', ' During the withdraw , however , A Company ran into a sizable North Korean force and had scattered in the ensuing fight . Most of the company , including its commander were killed at close range . In this desperate action , Private First Class Luther H. Story , a weapons squad leader , fought so <unk> that he was awarded the Medal of Honor . <unk> wounded , Story refused to be a burden to those who might escape , and when last seen was still engaging North Korean at close range . Of those in the company , approximately ten men escaped to friendly lines . The next morning , under heavy fog , the group made its way by <unk> toward <unk> . From a hill at 12 : 00 , after the fog had lifted , the men looked down on the Battle of <unk> which was then in progress . That afternoon 20 survivors of the company merged into the lines of the 72nd Tank Battalion near <unk> . <unk> from this position continued to stream in the next few days as well . \n', '', ' = = = The end of Task Force <unk> = = = \n', '', " In the meantime , Task Force <unk> was still holding its position along the <unk> River , about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of where A Company had been destroyed on the southern end of the line . The perimeter position taken by the men of D and H Companies , 9th Infantry , who had started up the hill before the North Koreans struck , was on a southern <unk> of Hill <unk> , 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south of B Company 's higher position . In addition to the D and H Company men , there were a few from the Heavy <unk> Platoon and one or two from B Company . <unk> , 60 to 70 men were in the group . The group had an <unk> @-@ 300 radio , a heavy machine gun , two light machine gun , a <unk> <unk> <unk> Rifle , about 20 <unk> <unk> rifles , and about 40 <unk> or pistols . <unk> assumed command of the group . \n", ' During the night <unk> established radio communication with the 1st Battalion , 9th infantry . When daylight came <unk> and his group saw that they were surrounded by North Koreans . One force occupied the higher <unk> half a mile above them , formerly held by B Company . Below them , North Koreans continued crossing the river and moving supplies forward to their combat units , some of them already several miles eastward . The North Koreans quickly discovered Task Force <unk> group . They first attacked it at 14 : 00 that afternoon , and were repulsed . That night an estimated company attacked three times , pressing the fight to close quarters , but failed each time to penetrate the tight US perimeter . <unk> of the second day disclosed many North Korean dead on the steep slopes outside the perimeter . \n', ' In the afternoon of September 2 <unk> <unk> 1st Battalion for an <unk> of supplies . A US plane attempted the drop , but the perimeter was so small and the slopes so steep that virtually all the supplies went into North Korean hands . The men in the perimeter did , however , recover from a drop made later at 19 : 00 some supplies and ammunition . Private First Class Joseph R. <unk> , of H Company , left the perimeter to gather weapons , ammunition , and grenades from the North Korean dead . On several occasions he was attacked , and on one such occasion a North Korean soldier suddenly attacked <unk> , who killed the North Korean in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . \n', ' That same afternoon , the North Koreans sent an American prisoner up the hill to <unk> with the message , " You have one hour to surrender or be blown to pieces . " <unk> in frontal infantry attack to reduce the little defending force , the North Koreans now meant to take it under mortar fire . Only 45 minutes later North Korean <unk> fire came in on the <unk> and two machine guns from positions northward and higher on the slope of Hill <unk> swept the perimeter . Soon , mortars <unk> on a neighboring high finger ridge eastward registered on <unk> \'s perimeter and continued firing until dark . The machine gun fire forced every man to stay in his <unk> . The lifting of the mortar fire after dark was the signal for renewed North Korean infantry attacks , all of which were repulsed . But the number of killed and wounded within the perimeter was growing , and supplies were diminishing . There were no medical supplies except those carried by one aid man . \n', ' The third day , September 3 , the situation worsened . The weather was hot and ammunition , food and supplies were nearly completely exhausted . Since the previous afternoon , North Korean mortar <unk> had alternated with infantry assaults against the perimeter . <unk> later estimated there were about twenty separate infantry attacks repulsed . Two North Korean machine guns still swept the perimeter whenever anyone showed himself . Dead and dying US troops were in almost every <unk> . <unk> fragments destroyed the radio and this ended all communication with other US units . Artillery fire and air strikes requested by <unk> never came . Some North Koreans worked their way close to the perimeter and threw grenades into it . Six times <unk> <unk> from his <unk> to escape grenades thrown into it . In this close action <unk> was killed . Most of the <unk> of the perimeter received one or more direct mortar hits in the course of the continuing mortar fire . One of these killed <unk> on September 3 . The command passed now to First Lieutenant Raymond J. <unk> of D Company , senior surviving officer . \n', ' At daylight on the morning of 4 September only two officers and approximately half the men who had assembled on the hill , were alive . As the day passed , with ammunition down to about one clip per man and only a few grenades left and no help in sight , <unk> decided to abandon the position that night . When it got dark the survivors would split into small groups and try to get back to friendly lines . That evening after dark the North Koreans launched another weak attack against the position . At 22 : 00 , <unk> and Caldwell and 27 enlisted men slipped off the hill in groups of four . Master Sergeant Travis E. Watkins , still alive in his <unk> condition , refused efforts of evacuation , saying that he did not want to be a burden to those who had a chance to get away . He asked only that his <unk> be loaded and placed on his chest with the muzzle under his chin . Like <unk> , he would also win the Medal of Honor for his actions . Of the 29 men who came off the hill the night of September 4 , 22 escaped to friendly lines , many of them following the <unk> downstream , hiding by day and traveling by night , until they reached the lines of the US 25th Infantry Division . \n', ' Members of Task Force <unk> who escaped from Hill <unk> brought back considerable intelligence information of North Korean activity in the vicinity of the <unk> ferry crossing site . At the ferry site the North Koreans had put in an underwater bridge . A short distance downstream , each night they placed a <unk> bridge across the river and took it up before dawn the next morning . <unk> parties of 50 civilians guarded by four North Korean soldiers crossed the river continuously at night , an estimated total of 800 @-@ 1 @,@ 000 carriers being used at this crossing site . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' North of the US 9th Infantry and the battles in the <unk> <unk> and around <unk> , the US <unk> Infantry Regiment after daylight of September 1 was in a very precarious position . Its 1st Battalion had been driven from the river positions and isolated 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) westward . Approximately 400 North Koreans now overran the regimental command post , compelling Freeman to withdraw it about 600 yards ( 550 m ) . There , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) northwest of <unk> , the US 23rd Infantry Headquarters and Headquarters Company , <unk> regimental units , and regimental staff officers checked the North Koreans in a 3 @-@ hour fight . \n', " The North Koreans advanced to <unk> itself during the afternoon of September 2 , and ROK National Police withdrew from the town . North Koreans were in <unk> that evening . With his communications broken southward to the 2nd Infantry Division headquarters and the 9th Infantry , Haynes during the day decided to send a tank patrol down the <unk> road in an effort to re @-@ establish communication . C Company , 72nd Tank Battalion , led its tanks southward . They had to fight their way down the road through several roadblocks . Of the three tanks that started , only the lead tank got through to <unk> . There , it delivered an <unk> of Task Force Haynes ' positions to Bradley . \n", ' Still farther northward in the zone of the US 38th Infantry the North Koreans were also active . After the North Korean breakthrough during the night of August 31 , <unk> had ordered the 2nd Battalion , 38th Infantry , to move south and help the 23rd Infantry establish a defensive position west of <unk> . In attempting to do this , the battalion found North Korean troops already on the ridges along the road . They had penetrated to Hill <unk> overlooking the 38th Infantry command post . This hill and Hill <unk> dominated the rear areas of the regiment . At 06 : 00 September 3 , 300 North Koreans launched an attack from Hill <unk> against the 38th Regiment command post . The regimental commander organized a defensive perimeter and requested a bombing strike which was denied him because the enemy target and his defense perimeter were too close to each other . But the Air Force did deliver rocket and <unk> strikes . \n', " This fight continued until September 5 . On that day F Company captured Hill <unk> killing 150 North Koreans . From the crest he and his men watched as many more North Koreans ran into a village below them . Directed artillery fire destroyed the village . Among the abandoned North Korean materiel on the hill , <unk> 's men found twenty @-@ five American <unk> and <unk> guns , a large American radio , thirty boxes of <unk> American fragmentation and concussion grenades , and some American rations . \n", '', ' = = = 1 @-@ 23rd Infantry isolated = = = \n', '', " Meanwhile , during these actions in its rear , the 1st Battalion , 23rd Infantry , was cut off 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of the nearest friendly units . On September 1 the regiment ordered it to withdraw to the <unk> area . At 14 : 00 a tank @-@ infantry patrol was sent down the road , but it reported that an estimated North Korean battalion held the mountain pass just eastward of the battalion 's defense perimeter . Upon receiving this report the battalion commander requested permission by radio to remain in his present position and try to obstruct the movement of North Korean reinforcements and supplies . That evening Freeman approved this request , and 1st Battalion spent three days in the isolated positions . During this time C @-@ 47 <unk> planes supplied the battalion by <unk> . \n", ' On the morning of September 1 , 3rd Battalion , 38th Infantry moved in an attack westward from the 23rd Regiment command post near <unk> @-@ <unk> to open the road to the 1st Battalion . On the second day of the fighting at the pass , the relief force broke through the roadblock with the help of air strikes and artillery and tank fire . The advanced elements of the battalion joined 1st Battalion at 17 : 00 September 2 . That evening , North Koreans strongly attacked the 3rd Battalion , 38th Infantry , on Hill <unk> north of the road and opposite 1st Battalion , driving one company from its position . \n', " On September 4 , Haynes changed the boundary between the 38th and 23rd Infantry Regiments , giving the northern part of the 23rd 's sector to the 38th Infantry , thus releasing 1st Battalion for movement southward to help the 2nd Battalion defend the southern approach to <unk> . The 1st Battalion , 23rd Infantry , about 1 @,@ 100 men strong when the attack began , was now down to a strength of approximately 600 men . The 23rd Infantry now made plans to concentrate all its troops on the position held by its 2nd Battalion on the <unk> @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> road . The 1st Battalion moved there and took a place on the left flank of the 2nd Battalion . At the same time the regimental command post moved to the rear of this position . In this regimental perimeter , the 23rd Infantry fought a series of hard battles . Simultaneously it had to send combat patrols to its rear to clear infiltrating North Koreans from <unk> and from its supply road . \n", '', ' = = = Battle of <unk> = = = \n', '', ' On the morning of September 1 the 1st and 2nd Regiments of the <unk> 9th Division , in their first offensive of the war , stood only a few miles short of <unk> after a successful river crossing and penetration of the American line . The 3rd Regiment had been left at <unk> <unk> , but division commander Major General <unk> <unk> Sam felt the chances of capturing <unk> were strong . \n', ' On the morning of September 1 , with only the shattered remnants of E Company at hand , the US 9th Infantry Regiment , US 2nd Infantry Division had virtually no troops to defend <unk> . <unk> in this emergency attached the 2nd Engineer Combat Battalion to the regiment . The US 72nd Tank Battalion and the 2nd Division Reconnaissance Company also were assigned positions close to <unk> . The regimental commander planned to place the engineers on the chain of low hills that arched around <unk> on the northwest . \n', ' A Company , 2nd Engineer Combat Battalion , moved to the south side of the <unk> @-@ <unk> River road ; D Company of the 2nd Engineer Battalion was on the north side of the road . Approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of <unk> an estimated 300 North Korean troops engaged A Company in a fire fight . <unk> Gun Motor <unk> of the 82nd AAA Battalion supported the engineers in this action , which lasted several hours . Meanwhile , with the approval of General Bradley , D Company moved to the hill immediately south of and overlooking <unk> . A platoon of infantry went into position behind it . A Company was now ordered to fall back to the southeast edge of <unk> on the left flank of D Company . There , A Company went into position along the road ; on its left was C Company of the Engineer battalion , and beyond C Company was the 2nd Division Reconnaissance Company . The hill occupied by D Company was in reality the western tip of a large mountain mass that lay southeast of the town . The road to <unk> came south out of <unk> , bent around the western tip of this mountain , and then ran eastward along its southern base . In its position , D Company not only commanded the town but also its exit , the road to <unk> . \n', " North Koreans had also approached <unk> from the south . The US 2nd Division Reconnaissance Company and tanks of the 72nd Tank Battalion opposed them in a sharp fight . In this action , Sergeant First Class Charles W. Turner of the Reconnaissance Company particularly distinguished himself . He mounted a tank , operated its exposed turret machine gun , and directed tank fire which reportedly destroyed seven North Korean machine guns . Turner and this tank came under heavy North Korean fire which shot away the tank 's <unk> and <unk> and scored more than 50 hits on it . Turner , although wounded , remained on the tank until he was killed . That night North Korean soldiers crossed the low ground around <unk> and entered the town from the south . \n", ' At 09 : 35 September 2 , while the North Koreans were attempting to destroy the engineer troops at the southern edge of <unk> and clear the road to <unk> , Walker spoke by telephone with Major General Doyle O. <unk> , Deputy Chief of Staff , Far East Command in Tokyo . He described the situation around the Perimeter and said the most serious threat was along the boundary between the US 2nd and US 25th Infantry Divisions . He described the location of his reserve forces and his plans for using them . He said he had started the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade toward <unk> but had not yet released them for commitment there and he wanted to be sure that General of the Army Douglas MacArthur approved his use of them , since he knew that this would interfere with other plans of the Far East Command . Walker said he did not think he could restore the 2nd Division lines without using them . <unk> replied that MacArthur had the day before approved the use of the US Marines if and when Walker considered it necessary . A few hours after this conversation Walker , at 13 : 15 , attached the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade to the US 2nd Division and ordered a co @-@ ordinated attack by all available elements of the division and the marines , with the mission of destroying the North Koreans east of the <unk> River in the 2nd Division sector and of restoring the river line . The marines were to be released from 2nd Division control as soon as this mission was accomplished . \n', ' A decision was reached that the marines would attack west at 08 : 00 on September 3 <unk> the <unk> @-@ <unk> River road ; the 9th Infantry , B Company of the 72nd Tank Battalion , and D Battery of the <unk> AAA Battalion would attack northwest above the marines and attempt to re @-@ establish contact with the US 23rd Infantry ; the 2nd Engineer Combat Battalion , remnants of the 1st Battalion , 9th Infantry , and elements of the 72nd Tank Battalion would attack on the left flank , or south , of the marines to reestablish contact with the 25th Division . Eighth Army now ordered the US 24th Infantry Division headquarters and the US 19th Infantry Regiment to move to the Susan @-@ <unk> area , 8 miles ( 13 km ) south of <unk> and 15 miles ( 24 km ) east of the confluence of the <unk> River and the <unk> River . There it was to prepare to enter the battle in either the 2nd or 25th Division zone . \n', " The American counteroffensive of September 3 – 5 west of <unk> , according to prisoner statements , resulted in one of the <unk> <unk> of the war for a North Korean division . Even though remnants of the <unk> 9th Division , supported by the low strength <unk> 4th Division , still held <unk> @-@ <unk> Ridge , <unk> Hill , and the intervening ground back to the <unk> on September 6 , the division 's offensive strength had been spent at the end of the American counterattack . The <unk> 9th and 4th divisions were not able to resume the offensive . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> 2nd Division destroyed = = = \n', '', " The <unk> 2nd Division made a new effort against the 23rd Infantry 's perimeter in the <unk> hours of September 8 , in an attempt to break through eastward . This attack , launched at 02 : 30 and heavily supported with artillery , penetrated F Company . It was apparent that unless F Company 's position could be restored the entire regimental front would collapse . When all its officers became casualties , First Lieutenant Ralph R. Robinson , adjutant of the 2nd Battalion , assumed command of the company . With North Koreans rapidly infiltrating his company 's position and gaining its rear , Robinson in the darkness made his way through them 500 yards ( 460 m ) to A Company 's position . There he obtained that company 's reserve platoon and brought it back to F Company . He accomplished the dangerous and difficult task of <unk> it into the gap in F Company 's lines in darkness and heavy rain . \n", ' The attack tapered off with the coming of daylight , but that night it resumed . The North Koreans struck repeatedly at the defense line . This time they continued the fighting into the daylight hours of 9 September . The Air Force then concentrated strong air support over the regimental perimeter to aid the ground troops . Casualties came to the aid stations from the infantry companies in an almost steady stream during the morning . All available men from Headquarters Company and special units were formed into squads and put into the fight at the most critical points . At one time , the regimental reserve was down to six men . When the attack finally ceased shortly after 12 : 00 the 23rd Regiment had an estimated combat efficiency of only 38 percent . \n', ' This heavy night and day battle cost the <unk> 2nd Division most of its remaining offensive strength . The medical officer of the <unk> 17th Regiment , 2nd Division , captured a few days later , said that the division evacuated about 300 men nightly to a hospital in <unk> @-@ <unk> , and that in the first two weeks of September the 2nd Division lost 1 @,@ 300 killed and 2 @,@ 500 wounded in the fighting west of <unk> . Even though its offensive strength was largely spent by September 9 , the division continued to harass rear areas around <unk> with infiltrating groups as large as companies . <unk> daily had to open the main supply road and clear the town . \n', " North Korean and US troops remained locked in combat along the <unk> River for several more days . The North Koreans ' offensive capability was largely destroyed , and the US troops resolved to hold their lines barring further attack . \n", '', ' = = = North Korean withdrawal = = = \n', '', ' The UN counterattack at <unk> collapsed the North Korean line and cut off all their main supply and reinforcement routes . On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned much of the Pusan Perimeter during the night , and the UN units began advancing out of their defensive positions and occupying them . Most of the North Korean units began conducting delaying actions attempting to get as much of their army as possible into North Korea . The North Koreans withdrew from the <unk> area first , the night of September 18 – 19 . After the forces there , the remainder of the North Korean armies withdrew rapidly to the North . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the <unk> River positions , which were no longer of strategic importance . \n', '', ' = = Aftermath = = \n', '', ' The North Korean 2nd and 9th Divisions were almost completely destroyed in the battles . The 9th Division had numbered 9 @,@ 350 men at the beginning of the offensive on September 1 . The 2nd Division numbered 6 @,@ 000 . Only a few hundred from each division returned to North Korea after the fight . The majority of the North Korean troops had been killed , captured or deserted . All of <unk> II Corps was in a similar state , and the North Korean army , exhausted at Pusan Perimeter and cut off after <unk> , was on the brink of defeat . \n', ' By this time , the US 2nd Infantry Division suffered 1 @,@ 120 killed , 2 @,@ <unk> wounded , 67 captured and 69 missing during its time at Pusan Perimeter . This included about 180 casualties it suffered during the First Battle of <unk> <unk> the previous month . American forces were continually repulsed but able to prevent the North Koreans from breaking the Pusan Perimeter . The division had numbered 17 @,@ <unk> on September 1 , but was in excellent position to attack despite its casualties . The 1st Provisional Marine Brigade suffered 185 killed and around 500 wounded during the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , most of which probably occurred at <unk> . \n', " Of all the North Korean attacks along the Pusan Perimeter , the Second Battle of <unk> <unk> is seen by historians as the most serious threat . It was the battle in which the North Koreans made the most substantial gains , splitting the US 2nd Infantry Division in half and briefly capturing <unk> , where they were very close to breaching through to the US forces ' supply lines and threatening other divisions ' rear areas . However , once again the fatal weakness of the North Korean Army had cost it victory after an impressive initial success — its communications and supply were not capable of <unk> a breakthrough and of supporting a continuing attack in the face of massive air , armor , and artillery fire that could be concentrated against its troops at critical points . By September 8 , the North Korean attacks in the area had been repulsed . \n", '', '', ' = <unk> <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> , also known as ( <unk> ) Planet Earth and stylized as ( <unk> ) <unk> , is an American rock band from Huntington Beach , California . Formed in 1994 , the band performs a style of music which it refers to as " G @-@ punk " , a fusion of punk rock and <unk> rap . \n', ' After releasing three albums on <unk> Records , <unk> <unk> left the label to record independently , eventually signing with <unk> <unk> Records in 2006 . Since 2006 , the band has become known for its involvement in the 9 / 11 Truth movement , referencing it in many of their song lyrics and concerts , as well as the concept of the album New World <unk> . To date , they have released nine studio albums , one live album and two compilation albums . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Formation and major @-@ label debut ( 1994 – 1999 ) = = = \n', '', ' The band was formed by vocalist <unk> <unk> , formerly of The <unk> , also known as " <unk> " ( MC <unk> ) , and guitarist Wes <unk> , who became friends amidst the Orange County hardcore punk scene . <unk> and <unk> recruited guitarist <unk> , bassist <unk> , drummer <unk> <unk> and DJ Product <unk> 1969 . They named the group " <unk> " , which stands for " higher education " . The band built a following with their energetic performances at local venues , and released the self @-@ financed extended play , Church of <unk> . Legal issues forced <unk> to change their name , adding " <unk> " , which stood for " Planet Earth " . \n', ' <unk> <unk> signed with <unk> Records , releasing their self @-@ titled debut album in 1997 . In his review of the album , Allmusic \'s Steve Huey wrote " There are some slow and / or <unk> moments [ ... ] but overall , its aggression will probably play well with <unk> \' 90s metal and punk fans . " Due to the label \'s contractual terms and the disappointing sales of the album , the band found themselves unable to <unk> the cash advances given to them by <unk> . <unk> is quoted as saying " We had these romantic visions of the music industry , and we thought it would be cool to be a punk band on a rap label . So we fulfilled that dream , but it was also probably the worst thing that could have happened . [ ... ] We \'ve had offers from Sony and others that we can \'t take because we owe <unk> so much money . " \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and <unk> ( 2000 – 2004 ) = = = \n', '', ' On June 6 , 2000 , <unk> <unk> appeared on the tribute album <unk> in Black II , covering Black Sabbath \'s " <unk> <unk> " . <unk> <unk> released their second studio album , <unk> on August 22 , 2000 . It peaked at No. 63 on the Billboard 200 , while its first single , " <unk> " , peaked at No. 23 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and at No. 27 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . Allmusic \'s Jason D. Taylor wrote : " <unk> may have not found as much success in the competitive mainstream market as some would have liked , and even despite its distinct departure from the group \'s debut , it is an album that shows more vision than other rap @-@ <unk> rock albums to come out in 2000 . " The most negative response to the album came from critics who viewed its lyrics as <unk> . \n', ' On October 27 , 2000 , <unk> was arrested for possession of marijuana while the band was performing in <unk> , Connecticut . He was released on a US $ 1 @,@ 500 bond . In 2001 , <unk> <unk> performed on the <unk> tour alongside bands such as Korn , Static @-@ X , and System of a Down . A music video for " Killing Time " , the second single from <unk> , was produced in promotion of the film 3000 Miles to <unk> , which featured the song on its soundtrack . \n', ' <unk> <unk> released their third studio album , <unk> , on March 18 , 2003 . It peaked at No. 33 on the Billboard 200 , while its title track peaked at No. 21 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart and at No. 32 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart . Allmusic \'s Johnny <unk> wrote that " While it expands on melodic elements that had previously played a supporting role in the band \'s sound , <unk> also delivers <unk> of crushing guitar and pounding rhythm . And whether or not it is the presence of a top @-@ line producer , ( <unk> ) <unk> have figured out a way to <unk> their aggressive mix of heavy rock and hip @-@ hop with some serious hooks . " Guitarist <unk> joined the band in early 2004 . He is the fourth person to fill this position . \n', '', ' = = = Only in <unk> ( 2004 ) = = = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> left <unk> Records , releasing their fourth studio album , Only in <unk> , on Koch Records on October 19 , 2004 . It peaked at No. 20 on the Top Independent Albums chart and at No. 186 on the Billboard 200 . In his review of the album , Johnny <unk> wrote " It wants to be a <unk> <unk> in the ear of <unk> , but <unk> \'s torrential rhetoric is too <unk> and <unk> offensive to <unk> anything but superficial anger , and the music -- though occasionally explosive -- takes a <unk> to the <unk> . " \n', '', ' = = = <unk> <unk> Records and New Album Evolution ( 2006 – 2015 ) = = = \n', '', ' In 2006 , <unk> <unk> signed with <unk> <unk> Records , recording their fifth studio album , Back 2 Base X. The album was intended as a return to the <unk> of rock music , and did not rely as heavily on studio enhancement as previous releases . The album was released on June 6 , 2006 , the same day as The Best of ( <unk> ) Planet Earth , a compilation album produced by <unk> Records without the band \'s authorization or consent . Back 2 Base X peaked at No. 12 on the Independent Albums chart , and at No. 154 on the Billboard 200 . Allmusic \'s Rob Theakston wrote that " Back 2 Base X suffers from the same problems as <unk> : it tries to be conceptual in thought à la <unk> and vicious in its political commentary à la <unk> or System of a Down , but somehow falls short by sounding like an angry <unk> on a <unk> . It won \'t win any new fans , but existing fans of ( <unk> ) <unk> \'s work won \'t be turning their backs away from the band in anger <unk> soon , either . " \n', ' On June 26 , 2007 , the band released their sixth studio album , <unk> . It peaked at No. 16 on the Independent Albums chart , and at No. 138 on the Billboard 200 . The album \'s lead single , " <unk> " , became one of the most requested tracks at Sirius <unk> Radio \'s Hard Attack , while the song \'s music video was voted one of the Top 10 of 2007 on MTV \'s <unk> Ball . <unk> <unk> released their first live album , The <unk> <unk> , in 2008 . On January 13 , 2009 , they released their seventh studio album , New World <unk> . It was released in three different versions ; each contains a different set of bonus tracks . In 2009 , drummer <unk> joined the band . He is the sixth person to fill this position . The band \'s eighth studio album , Truth Rising , was released on October 26 , 2010 to mixed reviews . <unk> <unk> played the " Local Heroes Tour " in the fall of 2012 and played with <unk> in San <unk> on Sunday October 7 , 2012 . In an interview , frontman <unk> <unk> stated that their album for 2013 titled Ascension would be released within the first half of 2014 . Towards the end of 2013 , DJ Product mysteriously left the band with no explanation and no comment from the other members . On 1 / 1 / 2014 , <unk> <unk> <unk> stated on the band \'s official Facebook that the new upcoming ( <unk> ) <unk> album will be named " Evolution " and to be released within the year . \n', ' On May 13 , 2014 , On the band \'s official Facebook page , they released the official announcement of when the band \'s new album Evolution will hit stores . The album is set for release July 22 , 2014 . They also released a teaser of the tone of the new album on their Facebook page and soon after , the track " One More Body " . \n', ' In 2015 , it was confirmed that 12 @-@ year guitarist <unk> <unk> and original bassist Mark Young had left the band . They were replaced by guitarist Greg " <unk> " Harrison and bassist Kurt <unk> , leaving vocalist and founding member <unk> <unk> as the group \'s only remaining original talent . \n', '', ' = = Style = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Music and lyrics = = = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> performs a style of music which they have referred to as " G @-@ punk " , a phrase inspired by the term " G @-@ funk " , itself a reference to the P @-@ <unk> collective . <unk> <unk> \'s music is a fusion of styles ranging from hip hop , reggae , and <unk> to hard rock , punk , and heavy metal . Other elements that have been incorporated into this style include blues , funk , jazz and industrial . <unk> <unk> \' vocal style ranges from melodic singing to rapping , screaming , and death <unk> . The band \'s lyrics draw from a number of subjects , including the existence of extraterrestrial life , criticism of organized religion , the 9 / 11 Truth movement , cannabis use and sexual intercourse . \n', " <unk> , in addition to the 9 / 11 Truth movement , has expressed support for social liberal politicians such as Nancy <unk> and president Barack Obama . Previously however , <unk> ' 2004 lyrics for Only in <unk> expressed support for nationalism , and called for retaliation against Al <unk> for the 9 / 11 terrorist attacks . \n", '', ' = = = Influences = = = \n', '', " The band 's influences include <unk> , <unk> Boys , Black Sabbath , Bob Marley , <unk> <unk> , Nine <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> Hill , <unk> <unk> and Rage Against the Machine . <unk> <unk> 's second album , <unk> , incorporated classic rock and world music influences , while Back 2 Base X was influenced by classic punk bands such as the Sex <unk> and the Clash , <unk> was influenced by thrash metal bands such as Slayer , and New World <unk> was influenced by <unk> <unk> and Minor <unk> . Guitarist <unk> has been credited for encouraging a heavier , hardcore punk @-@ influenced musical style . \n", '', ' = = Band members = = \n', '', ' <unk> ( Paulo Sergio <unk> ) — lead vocals ( 1994 – current ) \n', ' Major <unk> ( Jeremiah Stratton ) — drums ( 2008 – current ) \n', ' <unk> ( Greg Harrison ) — guitar ( 2015 – current ) \n', ' Kid Bass ( Kurt <unk> ) — bass ( 2015 – current ) \n', '', ' = = = Former members = = = \n', '', ' Ken Sachs ( The Finger ) — keyboard ( 1994 – 1996 ) \n', ' Chad <unk> ( <unk> ) — guitar ( 1994 – 2002 ) \n', ' Wesley <unk> ( <unk> , Wes <unk> ) — guitar ( 1994 – 2003 ) \n', ' Ben C. <unk> ( <unk> ) — drums ( 1994 – 2003 ) \n', ' Doug <unk> ( DJ Product <unk> 1969 ) — <unk> , samples ( 1994 – 2013 ) \n', ' Mark Young ( <unk> ) — bass ( 1994 – 2015 ) \n', ' Sonny Mayo — guitar ( 2002 – 2003 ) \n', ' Jackson <unk> ( <unk> ) — guitar ( 2004 – 2015 ) \n', ' Christopher <unk> — drums ( 2004 ) \n', ' Mark " <unk> " <unk> — drums ( 2004 – 2006 ) \n', ' Devin <unk> — drums ( 2006 – 2007 ) \n', ' Anthony " Tiny <unk> " <unk> — drums ( 2007 – 2008 ) \n', '', ' = = = Timeline = = = \n', '', '', ' = = Discography = = \n', '', ' Studio albums \n', ' Church of <unk> ( 1995 ) \n', ' <unk> <unk> ( 1997 ) \n', ' <unk> ( 2000 ) \n', ' <unk> ( 2003 ) \n', ' Only in <unk> ( 2004 ) \n', ' Back 2 Base X ( 2006 ) \n', ' <unk> ( 2007 ) \n', ' New World <unk> ( 2009 ) \n', ' Truth Rising ( 2010 ) \n', ' Evolution ( 2014 ) \n', ' Forever ! ( 2016 ) \n', '', '', ' = <unk> warship = \n', '', ' An ironclad is a steam @-@ propelled warship protected by iron or steel armor plates used in the early part of the second half of the 19th century . The ironclad was developed as a result of the vulnerability of wooden warships to explosive or incendiary shells . The first ironclad battleship , Gloire , was launched by the French Navy in November 1859 . The British Admiralty had been considering armored warships since 1856 and prepared a draft design for an armored <unk> in 1857 ; in early 1859 the Royal Navy started building two iron @-@ <unk> armored frigates , and by 1861 had made the decision to move to an all @-@ armored battle fleet . After the first clashes of ironclads ( both with wooden ships and with one another ) took place in 1862 during the American Civil War , it became clear that the ironclad had replaced the <unk> ship of the line as the most powerful warship afloat . This type of ship would come to be very successful in the American Civil War . \n', ' <unk> were designed for several roles , including as high seas battleships , coastal defense ships , and long @-@ range cruisers . The rapid evolution of warship design in the late 19th century transformed the ironclad from a wooden @-@ <unk> vessel that carried sails to supplement its steam engines into the steel @-@ built , <unk> battleships and cruisers familiar in the 20th century . This change was pushed forward by the development of heavier naval guns ( the ironclads of the 1880s carried some of the heaviest guns ever mounted at sea ) , more sophisticated steam engines , and advances in metallurgy which made steel shipbuilding possible . \n', ' The quick pace of change meant that many ships were obsolete as soon as they were finished , and that naval tactics were in a state of flux . Many ironclads were built to make use of the ram or the torpedo , which a number of naval designers considered the important weapons of naval combat . There is no clear end to the ironclad period , but towards the end of the 1890s the term ironclad dropped out of use . New ships were increasingly constructed to a standard pattern and designated battleships or armored cruisers . \n', '', ' = = The ironclad = = \n', '', ' The ironclad became technically feasible and tactically necessary because of developments in shipbuilding in the first half of the 19th century . According to naval historian J. Richard Hill : " The ( ironclad ) had three chief characteristics : a metal @-@ skinned hull , steam propulsion and a main armament of guns capable of firing explosive shells . It is only when all three characteristics are present that a fighting ship can properly be called an ironclad . " Each of these developments was introduced separately in the decade before the first ironclads . \n', '', ' = = = Steam propulsion = = = \n', '', ' In the 18th and early 19th centuries fleets had relied on two types of major warship , the ship of the line and the frigate . The first major change to these types was the introduction of steam power for propulsion . While <unk> steamer warships had been used from the 1830s onwards , steam propulsion only became suitable for major warships after the adoption of the screw propeller in the 1840s . \n', ' Steam @-@ powered screw frigates were built in the mid @-@ 1840s , and at the end of the decade the French Navy introduced steam power to its line of battle . The desire for change came from the ambition of Napoleon III to gain greater influence in Europe , which required a challenge to the British at sea . The first purpose @-@ built steam battleship was the 90 @-@ gun Napoléon in 1850 . Napoléon was armed as a conventional ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , but her steam engines could give her a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) , regardless of the wind conditions : a potentially decisive advantage in a naval engagement . \n', ' The introduction of the steam ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line led to a building competition between France and Britain . Eight sister ships to Napoléon were built in France over a period of ten years , but the United Kingdom soon managed to take the lead in production . <unk> , France built ten new wooden steam battleships and converted 28 from older ships of the line , while the United Kingdom built 18 and converted 41 . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> shells = = = \n', '', ' The era of the wooden steam ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line was brief , because of new , more powerful naval guns . In the 1820s and 1830s , warships began to mount increasingly heavy guns , replacing 18- and 24 @-@ pounder guns with 32 @-@ pounders on sailing ships @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line and introducing 68 @-@ pounders on <unk> . Then , the first shell guns firing explosive shells were introduced following their development by the French <unk> Henri @-@ Joseph <unk> , and by the 1840s were part of the standard armament for naval powers including the French Navy , Royal Navy , Imperial Russian Navy and United States Navy . It is often held that the power of explosive shells to smash wooden hulls , as demonstrated by the Russian destruction of an Ottoman squadron at the Battle of <unk> , spelled the end of the wooden @-@ <unk> warship . The more practical threat to wooden ships was from conventional cannon firing red @-@ hot shot , which could <unk> in the hull of a wooden ship and cause a fire or ammunition explosion . Some navies even experimented with hollow shot filled with molten metal for extra incendiary power . \n', '', ' = = = Iron armor = = = \n', '', ' The use of iron instead of wood as the primary material of ships \' hulls began in the 1830s ; the first " warship " with an iron hull was the gunboat <unk> , built by Laird for the East India Company in 1839 . There followed , also from Laird , the first full @-@ blown warships with metal hulls , the 1842 steam frigates <unk> and <unk> for the Mexican navy . But a thin iron skin , while not being susceptible to fire or lethal <unk> like wood , was not the same thing as providing iron armor calculated to stop enemy gunfire . \n', ' Following the demonstration of the power of explosive shells against wooden ships at the Battle of <unk> , and fearing that his own ships would be vulnerable to the <unk> guns of Russian fortifications in the Crimean War , Emperor Napoleon III ordered the development of light @-@ draft floating batteries , equipped with heavy guns and protected by heavy armor . Experiments made during the first half of 1854 proved highly satisfactory , and on 17 July 1854 , the French communicated to the British Government that a solution had been found to make gun @-@ proof vessels and that plans would be communicated . After tests in September 1854 , the British Admiralty agreed to build five armoured floating batteries on the French plans , establishing the important Thames and <unk> Iron Works within the docks . \n', ' The French floating batteries were deployed in 1855 as a supplement to the wooden steam battle fleet in the Crimean War . The role of the battery was to assist <unk> mortar and gunboats bombarding shore fortifications . The French used three of their ironclad batteries ( <unk> , <unk> and <unk> ) in 1855 against the defenses at the Battle of <unk> on the Black Sea , where they were effective against Russian shore defences . They would later be used again during the Italian war in the Adriatic in 1859 . The British floating batteries <unk> and Meteor arrived too late to participate to the action at <unk> . The British planned to use theirs in the Baltic Sea against the well @-@ fortified naval base at <unk> . \n', ' The batteries have a claim to the title of the first ironclad warships but they were capable of only 4 knots ( 7 km / h ) under their own power : they operated under their own power at the Battle of <unk> , but had to be towed for long range transit . They were also arguably marginal to the work of the navy . The brief success of the floating ironclad batteries convinced France to begin work on armored warships for their <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Early ironclad ships and battles = = \n', '', ' By the end of the 1850s it was clear that France was unable to match British building of steam warships , and to regain the strategic initiative a dramatic change was required . The result was the first ocean @-@ going ironclad , the Gloire , begun in 1857 and launched in 1859 . \n', " Gloire 's wooden hull was modelled on that of a steam ship of the line , reduced to one deck , <unk> in iron plates 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 110 mm ) thick . She was propelled by a steam engine , driving a single screw propeller for a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ) . She was armed with thirty @-@ six 6 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 160 mm ) rifled guns . France proceeded to construct 16 ironclad warships , including two more sister ships to Gloire , and the only two @-@ <unk> broadside ironclads ever built , <unk> and <unk> . \n", " The Royal Navy had not been keen to sacrifice its advantage in steam ships of the line , but was determined that the first British ironclad would <unk> the French ships in every respect , particularly speed . A fast ship would have the advantage of being able to choose a range of engagement which could make her <unk> to enemy fire . The British specification was more a large , powerful frigate than a ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line . The requirement for speed meant a very long vessel , which had to be built from iron . The result was the construction of two Warrior @-@ class ironclads ; HMS Warrior and HMS Black Prince . The ships had a successful design , though there were necessarily compromises between ' sea @-@ keeping ' , strategic range and armour protection ; their weapons were more effective than that of Gloire , and with the largest set of steam engines yet fitted to a ship they could steam at 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 26 @.@ 5 km / h ) . Yet the Gloire and her sisters had full iron @-@ armour protection along the waterline and the battery itself . Warrior and Black Prince ( but also the smaller Defence and Resistance ) were obliged to concentrate their armour in a central ' citadel ' or ' armoured box ' , leaving many main deck guns and the fore and aft sections of the vessel unprotected . The use of iron in the construction of Warrior also came with some drawbacks ; iron hulls required more regular and intensive repairs than wooden hulls , and iron was more susceptible to <unk> by marine life . \n", ' By 1862 , navies across Europe had adopted ironclads . Britain and France each had sixteen either completed or under construction , though the British vessels were larger . Austria , Italy , Russia , and Spain were also building ironclads . However , the first battles using the new ironclad ships involved neither Britain nor France , and involved ships markedly different from the broadside @-@ firing , <unk> designs of Gloire and Warrior . The use of ironclads by both sides in the American Civil War , and the clash of the Italian and Austrian fleets at the Battle of <unk> , had an important influence on the development of ironclad design . \n', '', ' = = = First battles between ironclads : the U.S. Civil War = = = \n', '', ' The first use of ironclads in action came in the U.S. Civil War . The U.S. Navy at the time the war broke out had no ironclads , its most powerful ships being six steam @-@ powered <unk> frigates . Since the bulk of the Navy remained loyal to the Union , the Confederacy sought to gain advantage in the naval conflict by acquiring modern armored ships . In May 1861 , the Confederate Congress voted that $ 2 million be appropriated for the purchase of ironclads from overseas , and in July and August 1861 the Confederacy started work on construction and converting wooden ships . \n', ' On 12 October 1861 , the CSS <unk> became the first ironclad to enter combat , when she fought Union warships on the Mississippi during the Battle of the Head of <unk> . She had been converted from a commercial vessel in New Orleans for river and coastal fighting . In February 1862 , the larger CSS Virginia joined the Confederate Navy , having been rebuilt at Norfolk . <unk> on the hull of USS <unk> , Virginia originally was a conventional warship made of wood , but she was converted into an iron @-@ covered casemate ironclad <unk> , when she entered the Confederate navy . By this time , the Union had completed seven ironclad gunboats of the City class , and was about to complete the USS <unk> , an innovative design proposed by the Swedish inventor John Ericsson . The Union was also building a large armored frigate , the USS New <unk> , and the smaller USS <unk> . \n', " The first battle between ironclads happened on 9 March 1862 , as the armored <unk> was deployed to protect the Union 's wooden fleet from the ironclad ram Virginia and other Confederate warships . In this engagement , the second day of the Battle of Hampton Roads , the two ironclads repeatedly tried to ram one another while shells bounced off their armor . The battle attracted attention worldwide , making it clear that the wooden warship was now out of date , with the ironclads destroying them easily . \n", ' The Civil War saw more ironclads built by both sides , and they played an increasing role in the naval war alongside the <unk> warships , commerce raiders and blockade runners . The Union built a large fleet of fifty monitors modeled on their namesake . The Confederacy built ships designed as smaller versions of the Virginia , many of which saw action , but their attempts to buy ironclads overseas were frustrated as European nations confiscated ships being built for the Confederacy — especially in Russia , the only country to openly support the Union through the war . Only CSS <unk> was completed , and she arrived in American waters just in time for the end of the war . \n', " Through the remainder of the war , ironclads saw action in the Union 's attacks on Confederate ports . Seven Union monitors , including USS <unk> , as well as two other ironclads , the ironclad frigate New <unk> and a light @-@ draft USS <unk> , participated in the failed attack on Charleston ; one was sunk . Two small ironclads , CSS <unk> State and CSS <unk> participated in the defence of the harbor . For the later attack at Mobile Bay , the Union assembled four monitors as well as 11 wooden ships , facing the CSS Tennessee , the Confederacy 's most powerful ironclad and the gunboats CSS Morgan , CSS Gaines , CSS Selma . \n", ' On the western front , the Union built a formidable force of river ironclads , beginning with several converted <unk> and then contracting engineer James <unk> of St. Louis , Missouri to build the City @-@ class ironclads . These excellent ships were built with twin engines and a central <unk> wheel , all protected by an armored <unk> . They had a shallow draft , allowing them to journey up smaller tributaries , and were very well suited for river operations . <unk> also produced monitors for use on the rivers , the first two of which differed from the ocean @-@ going monitors in that they contained a <unk> wheel ( the USS <unk> and USS Osage ) . \n', " <unk> <unk> vessels were some of the better ironclads of the Western Flotilla , but there were a number of other vessels that served <unk> with the fleet . All were of varying design , some more successful than others , and some were similar to standard <unk> but with armored side @-@ mounted <unk> wheels . All were armed with various smoothbore and some rifled guns . If nothing else the experience of the American Civil War and its wild variety of competing ironclad designs , some more successful ( or disastrous ) than others , confirmed the emerging trade @-@ off or compromises required in applying the latest technological advances in iron armour manufacture , ship construction and gun design — to name a few — also going on in Europe . There was no such thing as a ' perfect ' ironclad which could be <unk> in every possible encounter ; ship duels , standing up to forts , Brown & Blue @-@ water operations . \n", ' The Union ironclads played an important role in the Mississippi and tributaries by providing tremendous fire upon Confederate forts , installations and vessels with relative <unk> to enemy fire . They were not as heavily armored as the ocean @-@ going monitors of the Union , but they were adequate for their intended use . More Western Flotilla Union ironclads were sunk by torpedoes ( mines ) than by enemy fire , and the most damaging fire for the Union ironclads was from shore installations , not Confederate vessels . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> : First fleet battle = = = \n', '', ' The first fleet battle , and the first ocean battle , involving ironclad warships was the Battle of <unk> in 1866 . <unk> between the Austrian and Italian navies , the battle pitted combined fleets of wooden frigates and <unk> and ironclad warships on both sides in the largest naval battle between the battles of <unk> and <unk> . \n', ' The Italian fleet consisted of 12 ironclads and a similar number of wooden warships , escorting transports which carried troops intending to land on the Adriatic island of <unk> . Among the Italian ironclads were seven broadside ironclad frigates , four smaller ironclads , and the newly built <unk> — a double @-@ <unk> ram . <unk> them , the Austrian navy had seven ironclad frigates . \n', ' The Austrians believed their ships to have less effective guns than their enemy , so decided to engage the Italians at close range and ram them . The Austrian fleet formed into an <unk> formation with the ironclads in the first line , charging at the Italian ironclad squadron . In the <unk> which followed both sides were frustrated by the lack of damage inflicted by guns , and by the difficulty of <unk> — nonetheless , the effective <unk> attack being made by the Austrian flagship against the Italian attracted great attention in following years . \n', " The superior Italian fleet lost its two ironclads , Re d 'Italia and Palestro , while the Austrian <unk> screw two @-@ <unk> SMS Kaiser remarkably survived close actions with four Italian ironclads . The battle ensured the popularity of the ram as a weapon in European ironclads for many years , and the victory won by Austria established it as the predominant naval power in the Adriatic . \n", ' The battles of the American Civil War and at <unk> were very influential on the designs and tactics of the ironclad fleets that followed . In particular , it taught a generation of naval officers the misleading lesson that <unk> was the best way to sink enemy ironclads . \n', '', ' = = Armament and tactics = = \n', '', ' The adoption of iron armor meant that the traditional naval armament of dozens of light cannon became useless , since their shot would bounce off an armored hull . To penetrate armor , increasingly heavy guns were mounted on ships ; nevertheless , the view that <unk> was the only way to sink an ironclad became widespread . The increasing size and weight of guns also meant a movement away from the ships mounting many guns broadside , in the manner of a ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line , towards a handful of guns in turrets for all @-@ round fire . \n', '', ' = = = Ram craze = = = \n', '', ' From the 1860s to the 1880s many naval designers believed that the development of the ironclad meant that the ram was again the most important weapon in naval warfare . With steam power freeing ships from the wind , and armor making them <unk> to <unk> , the ram seemed to offer the opportunity to strike a decisive blow . \n', " The <unk> damage inflicted by the guns of <unk> and Virginia at Battle of Hampton Roads and the spectacular but lucky success of the Austrian flagship SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max sinking the Italian Re d 'Italia at <unk> gave strength to the <unk> craze . From the early 1870s to early 1880s most British naval officers thought that guns were about to be replaced as the main naval armament by the ram . Those who noted the tiny number of ships that had actually been sunk by <unk> struggled to be heard . \n", ' The revival of <unk> had a significant effect on naval tactics . Since the 17th century the predominant tactic of naval warfare had been the line of battle , where a fleet formed a long line to give it the best fire from its broadside guns . This tactic was totally unsuited to <unk> , and the ram threw fleet tactics into <unk> . The question of how an ironclad fleet should deploy in battle to make best use of the ram was never tested in battle , and if it had been , combat might have shown that rams could only be used against ships which were already stopped dead in the water . \n', ' The ram finally fell out of favour in the 1880s , as the same effect could be achieved with a torpedo , with less vulnerability to quick @-@ firing guns . \n', '', ' = = = Development of naval guns = = = \n', '', ' The armament of ironclads tended to become concentrated in a small number of powerful guns capable of penetrating the armor of enemy ships at range ; calibre and weight of guns increased markedly to achieve greater penetration . Throughout the ironclad era navies also <unk> with the <unk> of rifled versus smoothbore guns and breech @-@ loading versus muzzle @-@ loading . \n', ' HMS Warrior carried a mixture of 110 @-@ pounder 7 inch ( 180 mm ) breech @-@ loading rifles and more traditional 68 @-@ pounder smoothbore guns . Warrior highlighted the challenges of picking the right armament ; the breech @-@ <unk> she carried , designed by Sir William Armstrong , were intended to be the next generation of heavy armament for the Royal Navy , but were shortly withdrawn from service . \n', " <unk> @-@ loading guns seemed to offer important advantages . A breech @-@ <unk> could be <unk> without moving the gun , a lengthy process particularly if the gun then needed to be re @-@ aimed . The Warrior 's Armstrong guns also had the virtue of being lighter than an equivalent smoothbore and , because of their <unk> , more accurate . Nonetheless , the design was rejected because of problems which plagued breech @-@ <unk> for decades . \n", " The weakness of the breech @-@ <unk> was the obvious problem of sealing the breech . All guns are powered by the explosive conversion of gunpowder into gas . This explosion <unk> the shot or shell out of the front of the gun , but also <unk> great stresses on the gun @-@ barrel . If the breech — which experiences some of the greatest forces in the gun — is not entirely secure , then there is a risk that either gas will discharge through the breech or that the breech will break . This in turn reduces the muzzle velocity of the weapon and can also endanger the gun crew . The Warrior 's Armstrong guns suffered from both problems ; the shells were unable to penetrate the 4 @.@ 5 in ( 118 mm ) armor of Gloire , while sometimes the screw which closed the breech flew backwards out of the gun on firing . Similar problems were experienced with the breech @-@ loading guns which became standard in the French and German navies . \n", ' These problems influenced the British to equip ships with muzzle @-@ loading weapons of increasing power until the 1880s . After a brief introduction of 100 @-@ pounder or 9 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 240 mm ) smoothbore Somerset Gun , which weighed 6 @.@ 5 tons ( 6 @.@ 6 t ) , the Admiralty introduced 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) rifled guns , weighing 7 tons . These were followed by a series of increasingly <unk> weapons — guns weighing 12 , 25 , 25 , 38 and finally 81 tons , with calibre increasing from 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) to 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) . \n', ' The decision to retain muzzle @-@ <unk> until the 1880s has been criticised by historians . However , at least until the late 1870s , the British muzzle @-@ <unk> had superior performance in terms of both range and rate of fire than the French and Prussian breech @-@ <unk> , which suffered from the same problems as had the first Armstrong guns . \n', ' From 1875 onwards , the balance between <unk> and muzzle @-@ loading changed . Captain de <unk> invented a method of reliably sealing a breech , adopted by the French in 1873 . Just as <unk> , the growing size of naval guns made muzzle @-@ loading much more complicated . With guns of such size there was no prospect of <unk> in the gun for re @-@ loading , or even re @-@ loading by hand , and complicated hydraulic systems were required for re @-@ loading the gun outside the turret without exposing the crew to enemy fire . In 1882 , the 81 @-@ ton , 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns of HMS <unk> fired only once every 11 minutes while bombarding Alexandria during the <unk> <unk> . The 100 @-@ ton , 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 72 inch ) guns of <unk> <unk> could each fire a round every 15 minutes . \n', ' In the Royal Navy , the switch to breech @-@ <unk> was finally made in 1879 ; as well as the significant advantages in terms of performance , opinion was <unk> by an explosion on board HMS <unk> caused by a gun being double @-@ loaded , a problem which could only happen with a muzzle @-@ loading gun . \n', " The calibre and weight of guns could only increase so far . The larger the gun , the slower it would be to load , the greater the stresses on the ship 's hull , and the less the stability of the ship . The size of the gun peaked in the 1880s , with some of the heaviest <unk> of gun ever used at sea . HMS <unk> carried two 16 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( <unk> mm ) breech @-@ loading guns , each weighing 110 tons — no British battleship would ever carry guns as large . The Italian 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 72 inch ) guns would be larger than any gun fitted to a battleship until the 18 @.@ 1 @-@ inch ( 460 mm ) armament of the Japanese Yamato class of World War II . One consideration which became more acute was that even from the original Armstrong models , following the Crimean War , range and hitting power far exceeded simple accuracy , especially at sea where the slightest roll or pitch of the vessel as ' floating weapons @-@ platform ' could <unk> the advantage of <unk> . American ordnance experts accordingly preferred smoothbore monsters whose round shot could at least ' <unk> ' along the surface of the water . <unk> effective combat ranges , they had learned during the Civil War , were comparable to those in the Age of <unk> — though a vessel could now be smashed to pieces in only a few rounds . Smoke and the general chaos of battle only added to the problem . As a result , many naval engagements in the ' Age of the <unk> ' were still fought at ranges within easy eyesight of their targets , and well below the maximum reach of their ships ' guns . \n", ' Another method of increasing firepower was to vary the <unk> fired or the nature of the propellant . Early ironclads used black powder , which expanded rapidly after combustion ; this meant cannons had relatively short barrels , to prevent the barrel itself slowing the shell . The <unk> of the black powder explosion also meant that guns were subjected to extreme stress . One important step was to press the powder into <unk> , allowing a slower , more controlled explosion and a longer barrel . A further step forward was the introduction of chemically different brown powder which <unk> more slowly again . It also put less stress on the <unk> of the barrel , allowing guns to last longer and to be manufactured to <unk> <unk> . \n', ' The development of <unk> powder , based on <unk> or <unk> , by the French inventor Paul <unk> in 1884 was a further step allowing smaller charges of propellant with longer barrels . The guns of the pre @-@ <unk> battleships of the 1890s tended to be smaller in calibre compared to the ships of the 1880s , most often 12 in ( 305 mm ) , but progressively grew in length of barrel , making use of improved <unk> to gain greater muzzle velocity . \n', ' The nature of the projectiles also changed during the ironclad period . Initially , the best armor @-@ piercing <unk> was a solid cast @-@ iron shot . Later , shot of <unk> iron , a harder iron alloy , gave better armor @-@ piercing qualities . Eventually the armor @-@ piercing shell was developed . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> of armament = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = <unk> ironclads = = = = \n', '', ' The first British , French and Russian ironclads , in a logical development of warship design from the long preceding era of wooden ships of the line , carried their weapons in a single line along their sides and so were called " broadside ironclads . " Both Gloire and HMS Warrior were examples of this type . Because their armor was so heavy , they could only carry a single row of guns along the main deck on each side rather than a row on each deck . \n', ' A significant number of broadside ironclads were built in the 1860s , principally in Britain and France , but in smaller numbers by other powers including Italy , Austria , Russia and the United States . The advantages of mounting guns on both broadsides was that the ship could engage more than one <unk> at a time , and the rigging did not impede the field of fire . \n', ' <unk> armament also had disadvantages , which became more serious as ironclad technology developed . <unk> guns to penetrate ever @-@ thicker armor meant that fewer guns could be carried . Furthermore , the adoption of <unk> as an important tactic meant the need for ahead and all @-@ round fire . These problems led to broadside designs being superseded by designs that gave greater all @-@ round fire , which included central @-@ battery , turret , and barbette designs . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> , batteries and barbettes = = = = \n', '', " There were two main design <unk> to the broadside . In one design , the guns were placed in an armoured casemate amidships : this arrangement was called the ' box @-@ battery ' or ' centre @-@ battery ' . In the other , the guns could be placed on a rotating platform to give them a broad field of fire ; when fully armored , this arrangement was called a turret and when partially armored or <unk> , a barbette . \n", ' The centre @-@ battery was the simpler and , during the 1860s and 1870s , the more popular method . <unk> guns amidships meant the ship could be shorter and <unk> than a broadside type . The first full @-@ scale centre @-@ battery ship was HMS Bellerophon of 1865 ; the French laid down centre @-@ battery ironclads in 1865 which were not completed until 1870 . Centre @-@ battery ships often , but not always , had a <unk> <unk> enabling some of their guns to fire directly ahead . \n', " The turret was first used in naval combat on the USS <unk> in 1862 , with a type of turret designed by the Swedish engineer John Ericsson . A competing turret design was proposed by the British inventor <unk> <unk> with a prototype of this installed on HMS <unk> in 1861 for testing and evaluation purposes . Ericsson 's turret turned on a central spindle , and <unk> 's turned on a ring of bearings . <unk> offered the maximum arc of fire from the guns , but there were significant problems with their use in the 1860s . The fire arc of a turret would be considerably limited by masts and rigging , so they were unsuited to use on the earlier ocean @-@ going ironclads . The second problem was that turrets were extremely heavy . Ericsson was able to offer the heaviest possible turret ( guns and armour protection ) by deliberately designing a ship with very low <unk> . The weight thus saved from having a high broadside above the waterline was diverted to actual guns and armour . Low <unk> , however , also meant a smaller hull and therefore a smaller capacity for coal storage — and therefore range of the vessel . In many respects , the <unk> , low @-@ <unk> <unk> and the broadside <unk> HMS Warrior represented two opposite extremes in what an ' <unk> ' was all about . The most dramatic attempt to compromise these two extremes , or ' <unk> this circle ' , was designed by Captain <unk> <unk> <unk> : HMS Captain , a dangerously low <unk> turret ship which nevertheless carried a full rig of sail , and which subsequently capsized not long after her launch in 1870 . Her half @-@ sister HMS Monarch was restricted to firing from her turrets only on the port and starboard beams . The third Royal Navy ship to combine turrets and masts was HMS <unk> of 1876 , which carried two turrets on either side of the centre @-@ line , allowing both to fire fore , aft and broadside . \n", " A lighter alternative to the turret , particularly popular with the French navy , was the barbette . These were fixed armored towers which held a gun on a <unk> . The crew was sheltered from direct fire , but vulnerable to <unk> fire , for instance from shore emplacements . The barbette was lighter than the turret , needing less machinery and no roof armor — though nevertheless some barbettes were stripped of their armor plate to reduce the top @-@ weight of their ships . The barbette became widely adopted in the 1880s , and with the addition of an armored ' gun @-@ house ' , transformed into the turrets of the pre @-@ <unk> battleships . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', " The ironclad age saw the development of explosive torpedoes as naval weapons , which helped <unk> the design and tactics of ironclad fleets . The first torpedoes were static mines , used extensively in the American Civil War . That conflict also saw the development of the spar torpedo , an explosive charge pushed against the hull of a warship by a small boat . For the first time , a large warship faced a serious threat from a smaller one — and given the relative <unk> of <unk> against ironclads , the threat from the spar torpedo was taken seriously . The U.S. Navy converted four of its monitors to become <unk> armored spar @-@ torpedo vessels while under construction in 1864 – 5 , but these vessels never saw action . Another proposal , the towed or ' Harvey ' torpedo , involved an explosive on a line or <unk> ; either to deter a ship from <unk> or to make a torpedo attack by a boat less <unk> . \n", " A more practical and influential weapon was the self @-@ propelled or Whitehead torpedo . <unk> in 1868 and deployed in the 1870s , the Whitehead torpedo formed part of the armament of ironclads of the 1880s like HMS <unk> and the Italian <unk> <unk> and Enrico <unk> . The ironclad 's vulnerability to the torpedo was a key part of the critique of armored warships made by the <unk> <unk> school of naval thought ; it appeared that any ship armored enough to prevent destruction by gunfire would be slow enough to be easily caught by torpedo . In practice , however , the <unk> <unk> was only briefly influential and the torpedo formed part of the confusing mixture of weapons possessed by ironclads . \n", '', ' = = Armor and construction = = \n', '', ' The first ironclads were built on wooden or iron hulls , and protected by wrought iron armor backed by thick wooden <unk> . <unk> were still being built with wooden hulls into the 1870s . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> : iron , wood and steel = = = \n', '', ' Using iron construction for warships offered advantages for the engineering of the hull . However , <unk> iron had many military disadvantages , and offered technical problems which kept wooden hulls in use for many years , particularly for long @-@ range cruising warships . \n', ' Iron ships had first been proposed for military use in the 1820s . In the 1830s and 1840s , France , Britain and the United States had all experimented with iron @-@ <unk> but <unk> gunboats and frigates . However , the iron @-@ <unk> frigate was abandoned by the end of the 1840s , because iron hulls were more vulnerable to solid shot ; iron was more brittle than wood , and iron frames more likely to fall out of shape than wood . \n', ' The <unk> of <unk> iron for warship hulls meant that iron was only adopted as a building material for battleships when protected by armor . However , iron gave the naval architect many advantages . Iron allowed larger ships and more flexible design , for instance the use of <unk> bulkheads on the lower decks . Warrior , built of iron , was longer and faster than the wooden @-@ <unk> Gloire . Iron could be produced to order and used immediately , in contrast to the need to give wood a long period of <unk> . And , given the large quantities of wood required to build a steam warship and the falling cost of iron , iron hulls were increasingly cost @-@ effective . The main reason for the French use of wooden hulls for the ironclad fleet built in the 1860s was that the French iron industry could not supply enough , and the main reason why Britain built its handful of wooden @-@ <unk> ironclads was to make best use of hulls already started and wood already bought . \n', ' Wooden hulls continued to be used for long @-@ range and smaller ironclads , because iron nevertheless had a significant disadvantage . Iron hulls suffered quick <unk> by marine life , slowing the ships down — <unk> for a European <unk> close to dry docks , but a difficulty for long @-@ range ships . The only solution was to sheath the iron hull first in wood and then in copper , a laborious and expensive process which made wooden construction remain attractive . Iron and wood were to some extent interchangeable : the Japanese <unk> and <unk> ordered in 1875 were sister @-@ ships , but one was built of iron and the other of composite construction . \n', ' After 1872 , steel started to be introduced as a material for construction . Compared to iron , steel allows for greater structural strength for a lower weight . The French Navy led the way with the use of steel in its fleet , starting with the <unk> , laid down in 1873 and launched in 1876 . <unk> nonetheless had wrought iron armor plate , and part of her exterior hull was iron rather than steel . \n', ' Even though Britain led the world in steel production , the Royal Navy was slow to adopt steel warships . The <unk> process for steel manufacture produced too many imperfections for large @-@ scale use on ships . French manufacturers used the <unk> @-@ Martin process to produce adequate steel , but British technology <unk> behind . The first all @-@ steel warships built by the Royal Navy were the dispatch vessels <unk> and Mercury , laid down in 1875 and 1876 . \n', '', ' = = = Armor and protection schemes = = = \n', '', " Iron @-@ built ships used wood as part of their protection scheme . HMS Warrior was protected by 4 @.@ 5 in ( 114 mm ) of wrought iron backed by 15 in ( 381 mm ) of <unk> , the strongest shipbuilding wood . The wood played two roles , preventing <unk> and also preventing the shock of a hit damaging the structure of the ship . Later , wood and iron were combined in ' sandwich ' armor , for instance in HMS <unk> . \n", " Steel was also an obvious material for armor . It was tested in the 1860s , but the steel of the time was too brittle and <unk> when struck by shells . Steel became practical to use when a way was found to fuse steel onto wrought iron plates , giving a form of compound armor . This compound armor was used by the British in ships built from the late 1870s , first for turret armor ( starting with HMS <unk> ) and then for all armor ( starting with HMS <unk> of 1882 ) . The French and German navies adopted the innovation almost immediately , with licenses being given for the use of the ' Wilson System ' of producing fused armor . \n", ' The first ironclads to have all @-@ steel armor were the Italian <unk> <unk> and Enrico <unk> . Though the ships were laid down in 1873 their armor was not purchased from France until 1877 . The French navy decided in 1880 to adopt compound armor for its fleet , but found it limited in supply , so from 1884 the French navy was using steel armor . Britain stuck to compound armor until 1889 . \n', " The ultimate ironclad armor was case hardened nickel @-@ steel . In 1890 , the U.S. Navy tested steel armor hardened by the Harvey process and found it superior to compound armor . For several years ' Harvey steel ' was the state of the art , produced in the U.S. , France , Germany , Britain , Austria and Italy . In 1894 , the German firm <unk> developed gas <unk> , which further hardened steel armor . The German Kaiser Friedrich III , laid down in 1895 , was the first ship to benefit from the new ' <unk> armor ' and the new armor was quickly adopted ; the Royal Navy using it from HMS Canopus , laid down in 1896 . By 1901 almost all new battleships used <unk> armor , though the U.S. continued to use Harvey armor alongside until the end of the decade . \n", ' The equivalent strengths of the different armor plates was as follows : 15 in ( 381 mm ) of wrought iron was equivalent to 12 in ( 305 mm ) of either plain steel or compound iron and steel armor , and to 7 @.@ 75 in ( 197 mm ) of Harvey armor or 5 @.@ 75 in ( 146 mm ) of <unk> armor . \n', " <unk> construction also <unk> the later debate in battleship design between <unk> and ' all @-@ or @-@ nothing ' armour design . Warrior was only semi @-@ armoured , and could have been disabled by hits on the bow and stern . As the thickness of armor grew to protect ships from the increasingly heavy guns , the area of the ship which could be fully protected diminished . <unk> 's armor protection was largely limited to the central citadel amidships , protecting boilers and engines , turrets and magazines , and little else . An ingenious arrangement of <unk> @-@ filled compartments and <unk> bulkheads was intended to keep her stable and afloat in the event of heavy damage to her un @-@ armored sections . \n", '', ' = = <unk> : steam and sail = = \n', '', ' The first ocean @-@ going ironclads carried masts and sails like their wooden predecessors , and these features were only gradually abandoned . Early steam engines were inefficient ; the wooden steam fleet of the Royal Navy could only carry " 5 to 9 days coal " , and the situation was similar with the early ironclads . Warrior also illustrates two design features which aided hybrid propulsion ; she had retractable screws to reduce drag while under sail ( though in practice the steam engine was run at a low <unk> ) , and a <unk> funnel which could be folded down to the deck level . \n', ' Ships designed for coastal warfare , like the floating batteries of the <unk> , or USS <unk> and her sisters , <unk> with masts from the beginning . The British HMS <unk> , started in 1869 , was the first large , ocean @-@ going ironclad to <unk> with masts . Her principal role was for combat in the English Channel and other European waters ; and while her coal supplies gave her enough range to cross the Atlantic , she would have had little endurance on the other side of the ocean . The <unk> and the similar ships commissioned by the British and Russian navies in the 1870s were the exception rather than the rule . Most ironclads of the 1870s retained masts , and only the Italian navy , which during that decade was focused on short @-@ range operations in the Adriatic , built consistently <unk> ironclads . \n', ' During the 1860s , steam engines improved with the adoption of double @-@ expansion steam engines , which used 30 – 40 % less coal than earlier models . The Royal Navy decided to switch to the double @-@ expansion engine in 1871 , and by 1875 they were widespread . However , this development alone was not enough to herald the end of the mast . Whether this was due to a conservative desire to retain sails , or was a rational response to the operational and strategic situation , is a matter of debate . A steam @-@ only fleet would require a network of coaling stations worldwide , which would need to be fortified at great expense to stop them falling into enemy hands . Just as significantly , because of <unk> problems with the technology of the boilers which provided steam for the engines , the performance of double @-@ expansion engines was rarely as good in practice as it was in theory . \n', " During the 1870s the distinction grew between ' first @-@ class ironclads ' or ' battleships ' on the one hand , and ' cruising ironclads ' designed for long @-@ range work on the other . The demands on first @-@ class ironclads for very heavy armor and armament meant increasing displacement , which reduced speed under sail ; and the fashion for turrets and barbettes made a sailing rig increasingly <unk> . HMS <unk> , launched in 1876 but not commissioned until 1881 , was the last British battleship to carry masts , and these were widely seen as a mistake . The start of the 1880s saw the end of sailing rig on ironclad battleships . \n", " <unk> persisted on ' cruising ironclads ' for much longer . During the 1860s , the French navy had produced the Alma and La <unk> classes as small , long @-@ range ironclads as overseas cruisers and the British had responded with ships like HMS <unk> of 1870 . The Russian ship General @-@ Admiral , laid down in 1870 and completed in 1875 , was a model of a fast , long @-@ range ironclad which was likely to be able to <unk> and <unk> ships like <unk> . Even the later HMS Shannon , often described as the first British armored cruiser , would have been too slow to <unk> General @-@ Admiral . While Shannon was the last British ship with a retractable <unk> , later armored cruisers of the 1870s retained sailing rig , <unk> speed under steam in consequence . It took until 1881 for the Royal Navy to lay down a long @-@ range armored warship capable of catching enemy commerce raiders , HMS Warspite , which was completed in 1888 . While sailing rigs were obsolescent for all purposes by the end of the 1880s , rigged ships were in service until the early years of the 20th century . \n", ' The final evolution of ironclad propulsion was the adoption of the triple @-@ expansion steam engine , a further refinement which was first adopted in HMS Sans Pareil , laid down in 1885 and commissioned in 1891 . Many ships also used a forced draught to get additional power from their engines , and this system was widely used until the introduction of the steam turbine in the mid @-@ 1900s ( decade ) . \n', '', ' = = Fleets = = \n', '', " While ironclads spread rapidly in navies worldwide , there were few pitched naval battles involving ironclads . Most European nations settled differences on land , and the Royal Navy struggled to maintain a deterrent parity with at least France , while providing suitable protection to Britain 's commerce and colonial outposts worldwide . <unk> remained , for the British Royal Navy , a matter of defending the British Isles first and projecting power abroad second . Those naval engagements of the latter half of the 19th @-@ century which involved ironclads normally involved colonial actions or clashes between second @-@ rate naval powers . But these encounters were often enough to convince British policy @-@ makers of the increasing <unk> of strictly naval foreign intervention , from Hampton Roads in the American Civil War to the <unk> combined defences of naval <unk> such as <unk> and Cherbourg . \n", ' There were many types of ironclads : \n', ' <unk> ships intended to " stand in the line of battle " ; the precursors of the battleship . \n', " Coastal service and <unk> vessels , including ' floating batteries ' and ' <unk> \n", " <unk> intended for commerce raiding or protection of commerce , called ' armoured <unk> \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', " The United Kingdom possessed the largest navy in the world for the whole of the ironclad period . The Royal Navy was the second to adopt ironclad warships , and it applied them worldwide in their whole range of roles . In the age of sail , the British strategy for war depended on the Royal Navy mounting a blockade of the ports of the enemy . Because of the limited endurance of <unk> , this was no longer possible , so the British at times considered the risk @-@ laden plan of engaging an enemy fleet in harbor as soon as war broke out . To this end , the Royal Navy developed a series of ' coast @-@ defence battleships ' , starting with the <unk> class . These ' <unk> monitors ' were markedly different from the other high @-@ seas ironclads of the period and were an important precursor of the modern battleship . As long @-@ range monitors they could reach Bermuda <unk> , for example . However , they were still armed with only four heavy guns and were as vulnerable to mines and obstructions ( and enemy monitors ) as the original monitors of the Union Navy proved to be during the Civil War . The British prepared for an overwhelming mortar bombardment of <unk> by the close of the Crimean War , but never considered running the smoke @-@ ridden , shallow @-@ water gauntlet straight to St. Petersburg with ironclads . Likewise , monitors proved <unk> unable to ' overwhelm ' enemy fortifications single @-@ handed during the American conflict , though their low @-@ profile and heavy armour protection made them ideal for running <unk> . <unk> and obstructions , however , negated these advantages — a problem the British Admiralty frequently acknowledged but never countered throughout the period . The British never laid down enough <unk> @-@ class ' battleships ' to instantly overwhelm Cherbourg , <unk> or even New York City with gunfire . Although throughout the 1860s and 1870s the Royal Navy was still in many respects superior to its potential rivals , by the early 1880s widespread concern about the threat from France and Germany culminated in the Naval Defence Act , which promulgated the idea of a ' two @-@ power standard ' , that Britain should possess as many ships as the next two navies combined . This standard provoked aggressive shipbuilding in the 1880s and 1890s . \n", " British ships did not participate in any major wars in the ironclad period . The Royal Navy 's ironclads only saw action as part of colonial battles or one @-@ sided engagements like the bombardment of Alexandria in 1882 . <unk> British interests against Ahmed ' <unk> 's Egyptian revolt , a British fleet opened fire on the fortifications around the port of Alexandria . A mixture of centre @-@ battery and turret ships bombarded Egyptian positions for most of a day , forcing the Egyptians to retreat ; return fire from Egyptian guns was heavy at first , but inflicted little damage , killing only five British sailors . Few Egyptian guns were actually dismounted , on the other hand , and the fortifications themselves were typically left intact . Had the Egyptians actually utilised the heavy mortars that were at their disposal , they might have quickly turned the tide , for the attacking British ironclads found it easy ( for accuracy 's sake ) to simply anchor whilst firing — perfect targets for high @-@ angle fire upon their thinly armoured <unk> . \n", ' The French navy built the first ironclad to try to gain a strategic advantage over the British , but were consistently out @-@ built by the British . Despite taking the lead with a number of innovations like breech @-@ loading weapons and steel construction , the French navy could never match the size of the Royal Navy . In the 1870s , the construction of ironclads ceased for a while in France as the <unk> <unk> school of naval thought took prominence , suggesting that torpedo boats and <unk> cruisers would be the future of warships . Like the British , the French navy saw little action with its ironclads ; the French blockade of Germany in the Franco @-@ Prussian War was ineffective , as the war was settled entirely on land . \n', " Russia built a number of ironclads , generally copies of British or French designs . Nonetheless , there were real innovations from Russia ; the first true type of ironclad armored cruiser , the General @-@ Admiral of the 1870s , and a set of remarkably badly designed circular battleships referred to as ' <unk> ' ( for Admiral <unk> , who conceived the design ) . The Russian Navy pioneered the wide @-@ scale use of torpedo boats during the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 1878 , mainly out of necessity because of the superior numbers and quality of ironclads used by the Turkish navy . Russia expanded her navy in the 1880s and 1890s with modern armored cruisers and battleships , but the ships were manned by inexperienced crews and politically appointed leadership , which enhanced their defeat in the Battle of <unk> on 27 May 1905 . \n", ' The U.S. Navy ended the Civil War with about fifty monitor @-@ type coastal ironclads ; by the 1870s most of these were laid up in reserve , leaving the USA virtually without an ironclad fleet . Another five large monitors were ordered in the 1870s . The limitations of the monitor type effectively prevented the USA from projecting power overseas , and until the 1890s the USA would have come off badly in a conflict with even Spain or the Latin American powers . The 1890s saw the beginning of what became the Great White Fleet , and it was the modern pre @-@ <unk> and armored cruisers built in the 1890s which defeated the Spanish fleet in the Spanish – American War of 1898 . This started a new era of naval warfare . \n', ' <unk> were widely used in South America . Both sides used ironclads in the <unk> Islands War between Spain and the combined forces of Peru and Chile in the early 1860s . The powerful Spanish <unk> participated in the Battle of <unk> but was unable to inflict significant damage to the <unk> defences . Besides , Peru was able to deploy two locally built ironclads based on American Civil War designs , the <unk> ( a wooden ship converted into a casemate ironclad ) and the Victoria ( a small monitor armed with a single 68 @-@ <unk> gun ) , as well as two British @-@ built ironclads : <unk> , a centre @-@ battery ship , and the turret ship <unk> . <unk> was the first ironclad to <unk> the world , arriving in <unk> on 20 September 1867 , and earning the motto : " <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> " [ " First ironclad ship to sail around the world " ] ) . In the War of the Pacific in 1879 , both Peru and Chile had ironclad warships , including some of those used a few years previously against Spain . While the <unk> ran aground early on , the Peruvian ironclad \' <unk> made a great impact against Chilean shipping , delaying Chilean ground invasion by six months . She was eventually caught by two more modern Chilean centre @-@ battery ironclads , the <unk> <unk> and the <unk> <unk> at the Battle of <unk> Point . \n', ' <unk> were also used from the inception of the Imperial Japanese Navy . The <unk> ( Japanese : <unk> , literally " <unk> " , later renamed <unk> <unk> , " East " ) had a decisive role in the Naval Battle of <unk> Bay in May 1869 , which marked the end of the <unk> War , and the complete establishment of the <unk> Restoration . The <unk> continued to develop its strength and commissioned a number of warships from British and European shipyards , first ironclads and later armored cruisers . These ships engaged the Chinese <unk> fleet which was superior on paper at least at the Battle of the <unk> River . <unk> to superior short @-@ range firepower , the Japanese fleet came off better , sinking or severely damaging eight ships and receiving serious damage to only four . The naval war was concluded the next year at the Battle of <unk> , where the strongest remaining Chinese ships were surrendered to the Japanese . \n', '', ' = = End of the ironclad warship = = \n', '', " There is no clearly defined end to the ironclad , besides the transition from wood hulls to all @-@ metal . <unk> continued to be used in World War I. Towards the end of the 19th century , the descriptions ' battleship ' and ' armored cruiser ' came to replace the term ' ironclad ' . \n", " The proliferation of ironclad battleship designs came to an end in the 1890s as navies reached a consensus on the design of battleships , producing the type known as the pre @-@ <unk> . These ships are sometimes covered in treatments of the ironclad warship . The next evolution of battleship design , the dreadnought , is never referred to as an ' ironclad ' . \n", ' Most of the ironclads of the 1870s and 1880s served into the 1900s ( decade ) . For instance , a handful of US navy monitors laid down in the 1870s saw active service in World War I. Pre @-@ <unk> battleships and cruisers of the 1890s saw widespread action in World War I and in some cases through to World War II . \n', '', ' = = = Legacy = = = \n', '', ' The example of the ironclads had some bearing on the history of the tank , as ironclad warships became an inspiration for ideas of <unk> and other armored vehicles . H. G. Wells , in his short story The Land <unk> , published in The Strand Magazine in December 1903 , described the use of large , armoured cross @-@ country vehicles , armed with cannon and machine guns , and equipped with <unk> wheels \n', '', ' = = Today = = \n', '', ' A number of ironclads have been preserved or reconstructed as museum ships . \n', " Parts of USS <unk> have been recovered and are being <unk> and displayed at the Mariners ' Museum in Newport News , Virginia \n", ' HMS Warrior is today a fully restored museum ship in Portsmouth , England \n', ' <unk> is berthed at the port of <unk> , Chile , on display for visitors . \n', ' The City @-@ class ironclad USS Cairo is currently on display in <unk> , Mississippi . \n', ' <unk> <unk> in Newport News constructed a full @-@ scale replica of USS <unk> . The replica was laid down in February 2005 and completed just two months later . \n', ' The Dutch <unk> ( Coastal ram ) <unk> . Ms. <unk> is currently under display in the Maritime Museum Rotterdam . \n', ' The Dutch <unk> ( Coastal ram ) <unk> . Ms. <unk> is a museum ship at Den <unk> . \n', ' The complete , recovered wooden hull of the CSS <unk> , a casemate ram ironclad , is on view in <unk> , North Carolina , and , in another part of town on the <unk> River , the recreated ship , named CSS <unk> II , is nearly built and can be visited . \n', ' The hull of the casemate ironclad CSS Jackson can be seen in the National Civil War Naval Museum at Port Columbus , Georgia . \n', ' The new United States Navy <unk> @-@ class guided missile destroyer has been described as bearing resemblance to ironclads . \n', '', '', ' = Little <unk> ( poem ) = \n', '', " Little <unk> is the fourth and final poem of T. S. Eliot 's Four <unk> , a series of poems that discuss time , perspective , humanity , and salvation . It was first published in September 1942 after being delayed for over a year because of the air @-@ raids on Great Britain during World War II and Eliot 's declining health . The title refers to a small Anglican community in <unk> , established by Nicholas <unk> in the 17th century and scattered during the English Civil War . \n", " The poem uses the combined image of fire and <unk> fire to emphasise the need for purification and <unk> . According to the poet , humanity 's flawed understanding of life and turning away from God leads to a cycle of warfare , but this can be overcome by <unk> the lessons of the past . Within the poem , the narrator meets a ghost that is a combination of various poets and literary figures . Little <unk> focuses on the unity of past , present , and future , and claims that understanding this unity is necessary for salvation . \n", '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', " Following the completion of the third Four <unk> poem , The Dry <unk> , Eliot 's health declined and he stayed in <unk> Green , Surrey while he recovered . During this time , Eliot started writing Little <unk> . The first draft was completed in July 1941 but he was dissatisfied with it . He believed the problems with the poem lay with his own inability to write , and that , precipitated by air raids on London , he had started the poem with too little preparation and had written it too quickly . After the first draft was written , he set the poem aside , and he left in September to lecture throughout Great Britain . \n", " After months of not working on the poem , Eliot began to feel compelled to finish it ; it was not until August 1942 , however , that he started working on it again . In total , there were five drafts . The poem was finished by 19 September 1942 and published in the October New English Weekly . Little <unk> was intended to conclude the Four <unk> series , <unk> Eliot 's views expressed in this series of poems . \n", ' Little <unk> was the home of an Anglican community established in <unk> by Nicholas <unk> . The <unk> household lived a Christian life according to High Church principles and the Book of Common Prayer . The religious community was dispersed during the English Civil War between <unk> and <unk> but reformed , ending with the death of John <unk> in <unk> . Eliot had visited the site in May 1936 . \n', ' Unlike the other locations mentioned in the titles of the Four <unk> poems , Eliot had no direct connection to the original Christian community . As such , the community is supposed to represent almost any religious community . \n', '', ' = = Poem = = \n', '', ' Critics classify Little <unk> as a poem of fire with an emphasis on <unk> and the <unk> fire . The beginning of the poem discusses time and winter , with attention paid to the arrival of summer . The images of snow , which provoke desires for a spiritual life , transition into an analysis of the four classical elements of fire , earth , air and water and how fire is the primary element of the four . Following this is a discussion on death and destruction , things <unk> , and regret for past events . \n', " While using Dante 's <unk> <unk> style , the poem continues by describing the Battle of Britain . The image of warfare <unk> with the depiction of <unk> , and the Holy Spirit is juxtaposed with the air @-@ raids on London . In the second section , a ghost , representing the poets of the past stuck between worlds , begins talking to the narrator of the poem . The ghost discusses change , art in general , and how humankind is flawed . The only way to overcome the problematic condition of humanity , according to the ghost , is to experience <unk> through fire . The fire is described in a manner similar to Julian of Norwich 's writing about God 's love and discussed in relationship to the shirt of <unk> , a shirt that burns its wearer . Little <unk> continues by describing the <unk> of the present and how history exists in a pattern . The poem concludes by explaining how sacrifice is needed to allow an individual to die into life and be reborn , and that salvation should be the goal of humankind . \n", '', ' = = Themes = = \n', '', " In terms of renewal , Eliot believed that suffering was needed for all of society before new life could begin . The original Little <unk> community was built for living on monastic lines , but the community was damaged and dispersed by Puritan forces during the English Civil War in 1646 . The church , the centre of the community , was restored in 1714 and again in 1853 . The image of religious renewal is combined with the image of the London air @-@ raids and the constant fighting and destruction within the world . This compound image is used to discuss the connection of holy places with the Holy Spirit , <unk> , communion with the dead , and the repetition of history . The theme is also internal to Eliot 's own poems ; the image of the rose garden at the end Little <unk> is the image that begins <unk> Norton and the journey is made circular . Also , the depiction of time within the poem is similar to the way time operates within The Family <unk> . \n", ' Like the other poems making up the Four <unk> , Little <unk> deals with the past , present , and future , and humanity \'s place within them as each generation is seemingly united . In the second section , there is a ghost who is the compilation of various poets , including Dante , Swift , Yeats , and others . When the ghost joins the poet , the narrator states " Knowing myself yet being someone other " . This suggests that the different times merge at the same time that the different personalities begin to merge , allowing a communication and connection with the dead . Later , in the fourth section , humanity is given a choice between the Holy Spirit or the bombing of London ; redemption or destruction . God \'s love allows humankind to be <unk> and escape the living hell through <unk> by fire . The end of the poem describes how Eliot has attempted to help the world as a poet . He parallels his work in language with working on the soul or working on society . \n', ' The ghost , a combination of many literary figures , was originally addressed in the poem as " <unk> <unk> " before being revised as an ambiguous " you " . " <unk> <unk> " was Dante \'s way of addressing <unk> <unk> , a former mentor whom he meets in Hell to which he has been condemned for <unk> . Eliot , in a letter to John <unk> dated 27 August 1942 , explained why he changed the wording : \n', ' I think you will recognise that it was necessary to get rid of <unk> for two reasons . The first is that the visionary figure has now become somewhat more definite and will no doubt be identified by some readers with Yeats though I do not mean anything so precise as that . However , I do not wish to take the responsibility of putting Yeats or anybody else into Hell and I do not want to <unk> to him the particular vice which took <unk> there . <unk> , although the reference to that <unk> is intended to be explicit , I wish the effect of the whole to be <unk> which is more appropriate . That brings us to the reference to swimming in fire which you will remember at the end of <unk> 26 where the poets are found . \n', " The theme of swimming through flames is connected to the depiction of <unk> <unk> , a poet that influenced Dante , seeking such a state in <unk> <unk> . However , the depiction of swimming was transformed into an image of dancing , an act that appears throughout Yeats 's poetry , within <unk> flames . The critic Dominic <unk> suggests that , in combining the image of dancing with <unk> , Eliot <unk> Dante 's and Yeats 's poetic themes . \n", '', ' = = Reception = = \n', '', ' Critics such as Malcolm <unk> and <unk> <unk> describe mixed emotions about the <unk> of the poem . <unk> emphasised the mystical nature of the poem and how its themes were closer to Buddhism than <unk> while mentioning his appreciation of many of the passages . <unk> also mentioned the Buddhist images and his admiration for many of the lines in Little <unk> . F. B. <unk> believed that the fourth section of the poem costs " Eliot more trouble and <unk> than any passage of the same length he ever wrote , and is his greatest achievement in the Four <unk> . " E. M. Forster did not like Eliot \'s emphasis on pain and responded to the poem : " Of course there \'s pain on and off through each individual \'s life ... You can \'t <unk> it and so on . But why should it be endorsed by the schoolmaster and <unk> by the priest until the fire and the rose are one when so much of it is caused by disease and <unk> ? It is here that Eliot becomes unsatisfactory as a seer . " Writing in 2003 , Roger <unk> wrote that in " Little <unk> " Eliot achieved " that for which he <unk> Dante — namely , a poetry of belief , in which belief and words are one , and in which the thought cannot be prized free from the controlled and beautiful language " . \n', '', '', ' = The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> = \n', '', ' The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> is a 1981 literary and philosophical novella by George Steiner , in which Jewish Nazi hunters find a fictional Adolf Hitler ( <unk> ) alive in the Amazon jungle thirty years after the end of World War II . The book generated considerable controversy after its publication because in it , Steiner , who is Jewish , allows Hitler to defend himself when he is put on trial in the jungle by his captors . There Hitler maintains that Israel <unk> its existence to the Holocaust and that he is the " benefactor of the Jews " . \n', ' The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> was a 1983 <unk> in the <unk> / Faulkner Award for Fiction . It was adapted for the theatre by British playwright Christopher Hampton and was staged in London in April 1982 with Alec <unk> playing the part of Adolf Hitler . It was also staged in Hartford , Connecticut in the United States in 1983 and starred John <unk> as Hitler . \n', '', ' = = Plot summary = = \n', '', " From his base in Tel Aviv , Holocaust survivor Emmanuel <unk> directs a group of Jewish Nazi hunters in search of Adolf Hitler . <unk> believes that the former <unk> is still alive , and following rumours and <unk> , he tracks Hitler 's movements through South America , until after months of wading through swamps in the Amazon jungle , the search party finds the 90 @-@ year @-@ old alive in a clearing . <unk> flies to San <unk> where he awaits the group 's return with their captive . But getting the old man out of the jungle alive is more difficult than getting in , and their progress is further hampered by heavy thunderstorms . \n", ' Meanwhile , broken and incoherent radio messages between <unk> and the search party are intercepted by intelligence agents tracking their progress , and rumours begin to spread across the world of Hitler \'s capture . <unk> flare up over his impending trial , where it will be held and under whose jurisdiction . <unk> is identified as the nearest airfield to the last known location of the search party , and aircraft begin arriving at the hitherto unknown town . But when the search party loses radio contact with <unk> , they must make a decision : do they sit out the storms and deliver their captive to <unk> later , or do they try Hitler in the jungle before their prize is <unk> from them by the world at large , who they know will be waiting ? Their decision is the latter , and against <unk> \'s advice ( " You must not let him speak ... his tongue is like no other " ) they prepare for a trial with a judge , prosecution and defence attorneys selected from the members of the search party . <unk> , a local Indian <unk> , is asked to observe the trial as an independent witness . \n', ' The attention Hitler is receiving , however , <unk> his strength , and when the trial begins , he <unk> aside his " defence attorney " and begins a long speech in four parts in his own defence : \n', ' Firstly , Hitler claims he took his doctrines from the Jews and copied the notion of the master race from the <unk> people and their need to separate themselves from the " <unk> " . " My racism is a parody of <unk> , a hungry imitation . " \n', ' Hitler <unk> the Final <unk> by maintaining that the Jews \' God , <unk> than any other , <unk> its subjects , continually demanding more than they can give and " <unk> " them with ideals that cannot be attained . The " virus of <unk> " had to be stopped . \n', ' Hitler states that he was not the originator of evil . " [ Stalin ] had <unk> <unk> when I was still a <unk> <unk> in Munich . " Further , Hitler asserts that the number of lives lost due to his actions are <unk> by various world atrocities , including those in Russia , China and Africa . \n', ' Lastly , Hitler maintains that the Reich <unk> Israel and suggests that he is the <unk> " whose infamous <unk> were allowed by God in order to bring His people home . " He closes by asking , " Should you not honour me who have made ... <unk> a reality ? " \n', ' At the end of his speech , <unk> is the first to react and jumps up shouting " <unk> " , only to be drowned out by the appearance of a helicopter over the clearing . \n', '', ' = = Main characters = = \n', '', ' Emmanuel <unk> – Jewish Holocaust survivor and director of the search party to find Hitler ; after <unk> out of a death pit in <unk> he never took the time to <unk> and embarked on a life @-@ consuming obsession to bring those responsible for the <unk> to justice . \n', ' Search party ( all Jewish with family ties to the Holocaust , except for John Asher ) \n', ' <unk> – search party leader and " presiding judge " at Hitler \'s trial ; he is <unk> \'s <unk> and torn between leading the party into " <unk> <unk> and green <unk> " and turning his back on the " quiet <unk> of <unk> \'s conviction " . \n', ' Gideon <unk> – falls ill and dies before the trial begins ; during one of his fever @-@ induced <unk> he suggests that Hitler is Jewish ; he had sought out <unk> after being released from a <unk> and spending three years <unk> in Paris where the care @-@ free living consumed him with guilt . \n', ' Elie <unk> – Orthodox Jew and " prosecution attorney " at the trial ; he is the moral <unk> of the group , but his convictions are disturbed by Gideon <unk> \'s fever @-@ induced <unk> that Hitler is Jewish and ends up believing that Hitler may be the second <unk> . \n', " Isaac <unk> – an 18 @-@ year @-@ old boy and witness at the trial ; he is the son of Isaac <unk> senior , former member of the search party killed earlier in a <unk> in São Paulo ; he joined the party to avenge his father 's death . \n", ' John Asher – half @-@ Jewish and reluctant " defence attorney " at the trial ; fascinated by the capture of <unk> and the rumours circulating that Hitler may be alive , he had approached Nazi hunter <unk> who directed him to <unk> ; despite being an " <unk> " ( no ties to the Holocaust ) <unk> assigned him to the search party because of his military training and his clear @-@ <unk> ( " no metaphysical lusts , no <unk> for <unk> " ) . \n', " <unk> – local Indian <unk> and independent witness at the trial ; previously the search party 's guide who had abandoned them when they insisted on entering <unk> regions of the jungle , he continued tracking them from a distance before revealing himself . \n", ' Adolf Hitler – now 90 years old , the former leader of the Third Reich had not died in the <unk> in Berlin , but escaped to South America and hid in the Amazon jungle . \n', '', ' = = Background and publication = = \n', '', ' George Steiner , literary critic for The New Yorker and The New York Times , had written about the Holocaust in some of his previous books , including <unk> <unk> ( 1964 ) , Language and Silence ( 1967 ) and In <unk> \'s Castle ( 1971 ) . Many of the ideas Steiner expresses in The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> were reworked from these earlier works . Steiner told New York Times editor D. J. R. <unk> that this book arose out of his lifelong work on language . " Central to everything I am and believe and have written is my <unk> ... that you can use human speech both to <unk> , to love , to build , to forgive and also to torture , to hate , to destroy and to <unk> . " \n', ' Commenting on the controversy the book generated , Steiner admitted to literary journalist and critic Ron <unk> ( author of Explaining Hitler ) that he too was disturbed by it , adding that his fictional Hitler had gotten the better of him , " <unk> or <unk> @-@ like " . He said that it felt like the book " wrote me " . Steiner also pointed out that the novella is not only about his thoughts on the Holocaust , but also about the horrific events that took place in countries like Cambodia , Vietnam , El Salvador and <unk> : " My feeling is that one has to <unk> with the <unk> if one can . " \n', ' Steiner wrote The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> in 1975 and 1976 in Geneva , Switzerland , and the 120 @-@ page work originally appeared in the Spring 1979 issue of the United States literary magazine , The Kenyon Review . It also appeared in the Spring 1980 issue of <unk> , the British literary magazine . Its first publication in book form , with minor revisions by Steiner , was in May 1981 by <unk> and <unk> in the United Kingdom — and as requested by Steiner , it was a paperback original . The first United States edition was published in hardcover in April 1982 by Simon & Schuster . \n', '', ' = = Adaptations = = \n', '', " The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> was adapted for the theatre in 1982 by British playwright Christopher Hampton . It was staged in April 1982 at London 's <unk> Theatre under the direction of John Dexter with Alec <unk> playing the part of Adolf Hitler . <unk> won the 1982 Evening Standard Theatre Award for best actor for this performance . In 1983 the production moved to the United States where it played at the Hartford Stage Company in Hartford , Connecticut , directed by Mark <unk> and starring John <unk> as Hitler . \n", ' This book is the only work of fiction by Steiner to have been adapted for the stage . \n', '', ' = = Reception = = \n', '', ' Reaction to The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> was mixed . Anthony <unk> in The Observer called it " astonishing " , Christopher Booker of The Daily Telegraph described it as a " powerful piece " , and English author A. S. <unk> said it was a " masterpiece " . In Explaining Hitler , Ron <unk> called The Portage " A <unk> story " , referring to Steiner \'s <unk> Hitler has having taken on a life of its own . Writing in Time magazine , Otto Friedrich described the book " a <unk> fantasy of remarkable intensity " , adding that by not <unk> Hitler \'s speech , Steiner <unk> from the <unk> of traditional Holocaust literature and ends the book " on a note of bleak ambiguity " . \n', ' Morris <unk> of The New York Times was more critical of the book , calling it " a <unk> and badly executed novel , a <unk> distraction from the serious business of thinking through the <unk> <unk> of the Nazi era . " He described it as " <unk> " that is " <unk> [ d ] " by too much " fine writing " ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) . He also complained that the characters are lifeless , and while they each have detailed histories , they are only " verbal <unk> " that do not separate them from one another . Finally <unk> noted that because almost all the points of Hitler \'s speech are drawn from some of Steiner \'s earlier works , he " unwittingly creates sympathy for Hitler by making him old and pathetic yet also <unk> and brilliant — at once <unk> harmless and <unk> dangerous . " \n', ' In another review in The New York Times John Leonard wrote that while the book has its strong points , " some wit , a <unk> disdain , multiplicity of character and a South American swamp @-@ life that <unk> " , its weaknesses are that " the characters are really ideas , ... the symbols clash and there are too many echoes of better books by <unk> and <unk> " . But Leonard \'s biggest criticism of the book was Hitler \'s speech , which he called " obscene " , and Steiner \'s decision to end the book at that point , which Leonard said " not only denies the power of art to arrange and transcend , but ... makes me sick to my stomach . " \n', ' Writing in the American literary magazine <unk> , Alvin H. <unk> called The Portage a " breakthrough work " that " <unk> " . He was struck by the book \'s interplay between the landscape of swamp and jungle , and the " landscape of speech " — the former being " brilliantly registered " with its " immense feeling of <unk> " , and the latter , " even more dramatic " in the way it exposes " the dark underside of words " and how its use and misuse reveals the true nature of a person . He was particularly impressed by the depiction of Nazi hunter Emmanuel <unk> and his role as representative of the Jewish consciousness . <unk> noted that while Holocaust literature often either <unk> to " <unk> and apostrophe " , or sinks to " a <unk> <unk> of elegiac lament " , Steiner \'s <unk> " <unk> between these two extremes , ... simultaneously records and <unk> , <unk> <unk> yet carries an immense affect " . What did concern the reviewer , however , was the way Steiner used ideas from his earlier works , that he had put them " virtually <unk> " into Hitler \'s mouth , creating the impression that " Steiner \'s understanding of Hitler were identical with the latter \'s self @-@ understanding " . <unk> also questioned why the book had to end with Hitler \'s speech . He said that Steiner \'s <unk> Hitler plays " the devil \'s game of language subversion " , making " madness [ sound ] like music " , something the real Hitler had <unk> . By stopping at this point , <unk> felt that Steiner " <unk> [ s ] , <unk> , to the seductive <unk> of negation " , which <unk> his own " high standards of moral intelligence " . But overall <unk> said The Portage " must be counted among the most vigorous attempts to portray the presence and meaning of Hitler " , forcing us to confront him " in a way hardly seen before in fiction " . \n', ' The Portage to San <unk> of <unk> was a <unk> in the 1983 <unk> / Faulkner Award for Fiction . \n', '', ' = = Controversy = = \n', '', ' The book generated considerable controversy because of its apparent " admiration for Hitler " . The controversy grew further when the faithful stage adaptation ( " too faithful " , according to Steiner ) was performed in the United Kingdom and the United States . \n', ' Hitler \'s speech at the end of the book disturbed many readers and critics . Steiner not only lets Hitler justify his past , he allows him the ( almost ) last word before the outside world invades . The fact that Steiner is Jewish made this speech in particular even more contentious . One critic , while acknowledging that Steiner always saw Hitler as " the incarnation of unprecedented and unparalleled evil " , felt that there was no clear distinction in the book between Steiner \'s own views and those of his fictional Hitler , even going so far as to accuse Steiner , who rejects Jewish nationalism and is a critic of Israel \'s treatment of the Palestinians , of anti @-@ Semitism . \n', ' In contrast , a Time magazine article at the time felt that Steiner \'s intention for the Hitler speech was to use it to explore his previously stated belief " that Hitler wielded language as an almost supernatural force " , drawing attention to Nazi hunter Emmanuel <unk> \'s warning from the book regarding Hitler : " There shall come a man who ... will know the grammar of hell and teach it to others . He will know the sounds of madness and <unk> and make them seem music . " \n', ' Steiner responded to criticism that Hitler \'s speech in this book is <unk> by saying that it had been done before : for example Satan \'s speech in Milton \'s Paradise Lost ( 1667 ) , and The Grand <unk> \'s speech in <unk> \'s The Brothers <unk> ( 1880 ) . He also reminded the reader that Hitler \'s speech is balanced out earlier in the book by <unk> \'s long monologue on the <unk> of the Holocaust . Finally , Steiner said that his Hitler ( A. H. ) is " a <unk> figure " , and that it is not he who has the last word , but <unk> , the Indian <unk> , who shouts " <unk> " . <unk> is also the Hebrew word used to indicate that " there are issues here beyond our wisdom to answer or decide . " \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> ( from Greek <unk> ( <unk> , " to cut " ) and <unk> ( <unk> , " <unk> " ) ) is a diverse <unk> of extinct small to giant <unk> — often considered primitive amphibians — that flourished worldwide during the <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> periods . A few species continued into the Cretaceous . <unk> have been found on every continent . During about 210 million years of evolutionary history , they adapted to a wide range of habitats , including fresh water , terrestrial , and even coastal marine environments . Their life history is well understood , with fossils known from the <unk> stage , <unk> , and maturity . Most <unk> were <unk> , although some were almost fully terrestrial , returning to the water only to breed . These <unk> were some of the first vertebrates fully adapted to life on land . Although <unk> are considered amphibians , many had characteristics , such as scales , claws , and armour @-@ like bony plates , that distinguish them from modern amphibians . \n', ' <unk> have been known since the early 19th century , and were initially thought to be reptiles . They were described at various times as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , although these names are now rarely used . Animals now grouped in <unk> were spread out among several amphibian groups until the early 20th century , when they were found to belong to a distinct taxon based on the structure of their vertebrae . <unk> means " cut vertebrae " , as each <unk> is divided into several parts . \n', ' Experts disagree over whether <unk> were ancestral to modern amphibians ( frogs , <unk> , and <unk> ) , or whether the whole group died out without leaving any descendants . Different hypotheses have placed modern amphibians as the descendants of <unk> , another group of early <unk> called <unk> , or even as descendants of both groups ( with <unk> evolving from <unk> and frogs and <unk> evolving from <unk> ) . Recent studies place a family of <unk> called the <unk> as the closest relatives of modern amphibians . <unk> in teeth , skulls , and hearing structures link the two groups . \n', '', ' = = Description = = \n', '', ' Many <unk> are much larger than living amphibians , and superficially resemble <unk> . Others are smaller and resemble <unk> . Most have broad , flat heads that are either blunt ( <unk> ) or elongated ( <unk> ) . The skulls are rounded or triangular in shape when viewed from above , and are usually covered in pits and ridges . The rugged surfaces of bones may have supported blood vessels , which could transfer carbon dioxide to the bones to neutralize acidic build up in the blood ( early <unk> <unk> would have had difficulty <unk> carbon dioxide from their bodies while on land , and these dermal bones may have been an early solution to the problem ) . Many <unk> also have canal @-@ like grooves in their skulls called sensory <unk> . The <unk> , which usually run around the nostrils and eye <unk> , are part of a lateral line system used to detect <unk> in water . As <unk> animals , most <unk> have small limbs with four toes on each front foot and five on each hind foot . <unk> <unk> have larger , thicker limbs , and some even have claws . One unusual terrestrial <unk> , <unk> , has relatively long limbs for its body , and probably lived as an active runner able to chase prey . \n', ' <unk> of most of the bones of <unk> are also seen in other early <unk> , aside from a few bones in the skull , such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , that have developed in some <unk> taxa . Most <unk> have <unk> horns in the backs of their skulls , rounded projections of bone separated from the rest of the skull by <unk> called <unk> <unk> ; in some <unk> , such as <unk> , they are pointed and very prominent . Among the most distinguishing features of <unk> are the <unk> <unk> , two large holes in the back of the palate . Another pair of holes , <unk> , are present in front of these <unk> , and connect the nasal passage with the mouth . <unk> often have teeth on their <unk> , as well as in their jaws . Some of these teeth are so large , they are referred to as <unk> . In some <unk> , such as <unk> , <unk> in the lower jaw <unk> the palate and emerge through openings in the top of the skull . \n', ' Very little is known of the soft tissue of <unk> . A block of sandstone , described in 2007 from the Early <unk> <unk> <unk> Formation of Pennsylvania , included impressions of the bodies of three <unk> . These impressions show , when alive , they had smooth skin , robust limbs with <unk> feet , and a ridge of skin on their <unk> . <unk> <unk> to small <unk> have also been found in <unk> and <unk> rocks . The <unk> , called <unk> , are usually found in strata deposited around freshwater environments , suggesting the animals had some ties to the water . \n', ' Unlike modern amphibians , many <unk> are covered in small , closely packed scales . The <unk> of most <unk> are covered in rows of large ventral plates . During early stages of development , they first have only small , rounded scales . <unk> show , as the animals grew , the scales on the <unk> of their bodies developed into large , wide ventral plates . The plates overlap each other in a way that allows a wide range of flexibility . Later <unk> <unk> , such as <unk> and <unk> , have no evidence of scales . They may have lost scales to make movement easier under water or to allow <unk> <unk> , the absorption of oxygen through the skin . \n', ' Several groups of <unk> have large bony plates on their backs . One <unk> , <unk> , has armour @-@ like plating that covers both its back and underside . The <unk> <unk> also has extensive plating on its back . Most members of the family <unk> also have armor , although it only covers the midline of the back with two narrow rows of plates . Other <unk> , such as <unk> , have been found with small , disc @-@ like bony <unk> that were in life probably embedded in the skin . All of these <unk> were adapted to a terrestrial lifestyle . Armor may have offered protection from predators in the case of <unk> . The <unk> may have provided stability for the spine , as they would have limited flexibility and may have been connected by strong ligaments . <unk> such as <unk> and <unk> that may have been at least partly terrestrial also have long neural spines on top of their vertebrae that would have stabilized the spine . <unk> <unk> are also seen in <unk> , but unlike <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , these animals are thought to have been fully aquatic . <unk> may have inherited their armor from a terrestrial ancestor , as both <unk> and <unk> have been considered close relatives of the group . \n', " <unk> ' vertebrae are divided into several segments . In living <unk> , the main body of the <unk> is a single piece of bone called the <unk> , but in <unk> , this region was divided into a <unk> and <unk> . Two types of vertebrae are recognized in <unk> : <unk> and <unk> vertebrae . In <unk> vertebrae , the <unk> are large and wedge @-@ shaped , and the <unk> are relatively small blocks that fit between them . Both elements support a spine @-@ like neural arch , and well @-@ developed <unk> projections called <unk> strengthen the connections between vertebrae . The strong backbone and strong limbs of many <unk> <unk> allowed them to be partially , and in some cases fully , terrestrial . In <unk> vertebrae , the <unk> have been lost entirely , with the <unk> enlarged as the main body of the vertebrae . This weaker type of backbone indicates the <unk> <unk> spent more time in water . \n", '', ' = = History of study = = \n', '', ' <unk> was named by German <unk> Karl Alfred von <unk> in his second edition of <unk> der <unk> , published in 1888 . <unk> remains were known since the early part of the 19th century , however . The earliest described <unk> was <unk> , named by Georg Friedrich <unk> in 1828 . <unk> named <unk> from a single tooth , and considered it a reptile . <unk> means " breast tooth lizard " after the <unk> @-@ like shape of the tip of the tooth . \n', ' The naming of these first specimens was disputed , however . Leopold <unk> named the animal <unk> in 1837 . In 1841 , English <unk> Richard Owen referred to the genus as <unk> to describe its highly folded or <unk> teeth . Owen thought the name <unk> " ought not to be retained , because it recalls <unk> the idea of the mammalian genus <unk> , or else a <unk> form of the tooth ... and because the second element of the word , <unk> , indicates a false affinity , the remains belonging , not to the <unk> , but to the <unk> order of <unk> . " Owen recognized the animal was not a " <unk> " reptile , yet he also referred <unk> \'s <unk> to the genus . Although the two genera both have similarly sized conical teeth , <unk> was later found to be a crocodile @-@ like reptile . Additional material , including skulls , firmly placed <unk> as an amphibian . <unk> also named <unk> <unk> in 1828 , basing it on partial <unk> , or back portion of the skull . In 1833 , he described a complete skull of S. <unk> that had the same teeth as his <unk> , making it the first known complete skull of a <unk> . Because <unk> was named first , it has precedence over the other names as a senior <unk> synonym . <unk> is still used as the name of an unrelated <unk> <unk> . \n', ' <unk> and other similar animals were referred to as <unk> , named like <unk> for teeth that were highly folded in cross section . Owen \'s " <unk> <unk> " was later found at Guy \'s <unk> , England by paleontologist William Buckland . Other specimens were found in the red sandstone of Warwickshire . As more fossils were uncovered in England , Owen depicted these <unk> as the " highest " form of <unk> and compared them to <unk> , which he considered the highest form of reptiles . He also noted the large <unk> of the <unk> ( a unit of rocks that dates to the Late <unk> ) were younger than more advanced reptiles in the <unk> and <unk> , which are Late <unk> in age . Owen used these fossils to counter the notion that reptiles evolved from a <unk> progression from early amphibians ( what he called " <unk> fishes " ) . \n', ' In addition to <unk> , some of the earliest named genera included <unk> and <unk> in 1842 , <unk> in 1848 , <unk> in 1849 , <unk> and <unk> in 1853 , <unk> in 1858 , and <unk> in 1859 . <unk> is now placed as an early <unk> outside <unk> , and <unk> is now considered a <unk> reptile . \n', ' Later in the 19th century , <unk> were classified as various members of <unk> , a name coined by American paleontologist Edward <unk> Cope in 1868 . Cope placed <unk> in the class <unk> , the name then used for <unk> . <unk> means " roof @-@ headed " in Greek , a reference to the wide , flat heads of <unk> and other early <unk> . During this time , <unk> considered <unk> to be amphibians because they possessed three main features : gill arches in juvenile skeletons , indicating they were amphibious for at least the first part of their lives ; ribs that do not connect at the underside of the rib cage ; and deep pits in the skull that were interpreted as space for <unk> glands . \n', ' Several <unk> of <unk> were recognized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Animals now regarded as <unk> were primarily <unk> , but some were classified in the <unk> . <unk> were small @-@ bodied and had simple conical teeth , while <unk> were larger and had complex , folded <unk> and enamel in their teeth . <unk> included only a few forms , such as <unk> from Europe and <unk> from North America , that had poorly developed bones , external gills , and no ribs . Some skeletons of <unk> were later found with long ribs , prompting its <unk> to <unk> ( although more detailed studies found it to be a <unk> ) . Soft tissue , such as scales and external gills , were found in many well @-@ preserved <unk> fossils from Germany . In the early 20th century , <unk> would be recognized as <unk> forms of <unk> lacking many of the typical features that define the group , and is no longer recognized as a distinct group . \n', ' Other animals that would later be classified as <unk> were placed in a group called <unk> , characterized by plate @-@ like skull bones , small limbs , fish @-@ like scales , and <unk> arches . Unlike <unk> , they did not have parietal <unk> , small holes in their skulls behind their eye <unk> . <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> were placed in this group and were considered to be the most primitive members of <unk> . Their <unk> vertebrae , <unk> , and lack of <unk> <unk> ( which attached the head to the neck ) were features that were also shared with fishes . Thus , they were considered a link between early fishes and more advanced forms such as <unk> . \n', ' Another group called <unk> was named by Cope in 1868 . Cope classified <unk> as a <unk> of <unk> , placing many small , amphibian @-@ like animals within it . Among them were <unk> , once placed in <unk> . <unk> was later placed as a <unk> with other <unk> , but confusion existed for many years over the classification of small amphibians . \n', ' By the end of the 19th century , most of what are today regarded as <unk> were placed in the suborder <unk> . American paleontologist <unk> <unk> Case called it <unk> <unk> or " true <unk> " . The names <unk> and <unk> were used <unk> to refer to the order in which it belonged . The <unk> <unk> <unk> and <unk> , both of which contain <unk> , were distinct from <unk> . Within <unk> were the groups <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . Members of <unk> , such as <unk> and <unk> , had <unk> vertebrae with enlarged <unk> that displaced the <unk> . <unk> , such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , had lost their <unk> , and the <unk> made up the entire body of the vertebrae . <unk> had <unk> and <unk> that were of equal size . <unk> are now identified as <unk> distantly related to <unk> . \n', " In 1888 , von <unk> divided <unk> among three taxa : <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . He placed <unk> in <unk> , a group which he characterized as having simple , <unk> @-@ shaped <unk> <unk> . <unk> included forms with the <unk> divided into <unk> and <unk> . All members of <unk> had <unk> <unk> composed only of the <unk> . Cope objected to von <unk> 's classification , considering the vertebrae of <unk> and <unk> indistinguishable because each had a simple <unk> shape . He continued to use <unk> and <unk> ( which he alternatively referred to as <unk> ) to distinguish animals based on the absence or presence of <unk> <unk> . \n", " <unk> became a commonly used name at the turn of the century . <unk> included both <unk> and <unk> in the group . Cope 's <unk> and <unk> fell out of use . In 1919 , British paleontologist D. M. S. Watson proposed that the evolutionary history of these large amphibians could be seen through changes in their vertebrae . <unk> forms in the <unk> graded into <unk> forms in the <unk> , and finally into <unk> in the <unk> . More importantly , Watson began using the term <unk> to refer to these groups . The name <unk> was rarely used in the decades that followed . Swedish paleontologist <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> removed <unk> from the group , narrowing its scope to <unk> and <unk> . His classification of <unk> was based heavily on characteristics of the skull rather than the vertebrae . \n", ' American paleontologist Alfred <unk> brought the name <unk> back into use in the later 20th century . <unk> @-@ <unk> used the name <unk> in a strict sense ( <unk> <unk> ) to refer to <unk> and <unk> , excluding <unk> . <unk> agreed with this classification , but used the name <unk> to avoid confusion with <unk> in its wider sense ( <unk> <unk> ) . Unlike modern <unk> classification , however , <unk> included the primitive <unk> in the group . \n', '', ' = = <unk> history = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> and Early <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> first appeared in the Early <unk> around 330 million years ago ( <unk> ) . During the <unk> , <unk> included basal medium @-@ sized forms such as <unk> or large <unk> forms such as <unk> . Other , more derived <unk> , such as the <unk> , were smaller and more terrestrial . They resembled <unk> , and some taxa , such as the genus <unk> , even retained external gills like the modern @-@ day <unk> . During the latest <unk> and Early <unk> around 300 <unk> , several groups , such as the <unk> and <unk> evolved strong , robust limbs and vertebrae and became adapted to life on land while others such as the <unk> , developed into large <unk> predators . The <unk> , a group of small aquatic <unk> , evolved from terrestrial ancestors in the Late <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Late <unk> = = = \n', '', ' During the Late <unk> , increasing <unk> and the <unk> of reptiles contributed into a decline in terrestrial <unk> , but <unk> and fully aquatic <unk> continued to <unk> , including the large <unk> of Eastern Europe . Other <unk> , such as <unk> , developed long <unk> and a close similarity to <unk> , although they lacked the armor characteristic of the latter group . These <unk> included the largest known amphibian , the 9 @-@ m @-@ long <unk> of Brazil . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' As <unk> continued to <unk> and <unk> in the Late <unk> ( 260 @.@ 4 - 251 @.@ 0 <unk> ) , a major group called <unk> became more dependent on life in the water . The vertebrae became weak , the limbs small , and the skull large and flat , with the eyes facing upwards . During the <unk> period , these animals dominated the freshwater ecosystems , evolving in a range of both small and large forms . During the Early <unk> ( 251 @.@ 0 - 245 @.@ 0 <unk> ) one group of successful long @-@ <unk> fish @-@ <unk> , the <unk> , even adapted to a life in the sea , the only known amphibians to do so with the exception of the modern crab @-@ eating frog . Another group , the <unk> , included <unk> and large @-@ sized animals 2 @.@ 3 to 4 m ( 7 @.@ 5 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) in length , with large and flat skulls that could be over a meter long in the largest forms such as <unk> . These animals spent most or all their lives in water as aquatic predators , catching their prey by a sudden opening of the upper jaw and sucking in fish or other small animals . \n', ' In the <unk> stage of the Late <unk> ( 228 @.@ 0 - 216 @.@ 5 <unk> ) , <unk> were joined by the superficially very similar <unk> . <unk> are distinguished from <unk> by the positioning of their eye <unk> near the front of their skulls . Another group of <unk> , the <unk> , had wide heads with external gills , and adapted to life at the bottom of lakes and rivers . By this time , <unk> had become a common and widespread component of <unk> ecosystems . Some <unk> , such as <unk> and <unk> , even inhabited Antarctica , which was covered in temperate forests at the time . \n', ' <unk> <unk> were often the dominant <unk> animals in their environments . Large <unk> of <unk> with hundreds of individuals preserved together have been found in the southwestern United States . They have often been interpreted as mass death events caused by droughts in floodplain environments . Recent studies show these dense <unk> were instead probably the result of currents accumulating dead individuals in certain areas . These environments seem to have had little diversity , as they were inhabited almost exclusively by <unk> . \n', ' The <unk> @-@ Jurassic extinction event around 199 @.@ 6 <unk> led to the extinction of most <unk> <unk> . The <unk> survived , as well as a few <unk> and <unk> . While the latter two groups soon became extinct , <unk> persisted and grew to large sizes during the Jurassic . Among <unk> , the <unk> flourished in China and the <unk> became common in <unk> . The most recent known <unk> was the giant <unk> <unk> , known from the Early Cretaceous of Australia . It survived in rift valleys that were too cold in the winter for <unk> that normally would have competed with them . <unk> was one of the largest of the <unk> , with an estimated weight of 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) . \n', '', ' = = Classification = = \n', '', ' Originally , <unk> were classified according to the structure of their vertebrae . Early forms , with complex vertebrae consisting of a number of separate elements , were placed in the suborder <unk> , and large <unk> aquatic forms with simpler vertebrae were placed in the suborder <unk> . With the recent growth of <unk> , this classification is no longer viable . The basic <unk> condition is found in many primitive <unk> , and is not unique to one group of <unk> . Moreover , the distinction between <unk> and <unk> vertebrae is not entirely clear . Some <unk> have <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> vertebrae at different points in the same <unk> column . Other taxa have intermediate morphologies that do not fit into any category . <unk> is no longer recognized as a group , but <unk> is still considered valid . Below is a simplified taxonomy of <unk> showing currently recognized groups : \n', ' Class <unk> \n', ' Order <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> ( <unk> ) \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> ( placement is uncertain ) \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' Family <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', '', ' = = = Phylogeny = = = \n', '', ' In one of the earliest phylogenetic analyses of the group , <unk> ( 1983 ) recognized five characteristics that made <unk> a clade : a bone at the back of the skull , the <unk> , is connected to another bone on the underside of the skull , the <unk> ; large openings called <unk> <unk> are present between the <unk> ; the <unk> ( a bone involved in hearing ) is connected to the <unk> and projects upward ; the <unk> , a bone in the pectoral <unk> , is thin ; and part of the <unk> called the <unk> <unk> to the neural arch . Additional features were given by Godfrey et al . ( 1987 ) , including the contact between the <unk> and <unk> at the back of the skull , small projections ( <unk> processes ) on the ribs , and a pelvic <unk> with each side having a single <unk> blade . These shared characteristics are called <unk> . \n', ' <unk> are placed as basal <unk> in phylogenetic analyses , with their exact positioning varying between studies . Depending on the classification of modern amphibians , they are either included in the crown group <unk> or the stem of <unk> . Crown @-@ group <unk> are descendants of the most recent common ancestor of all living <unk> and stem <unk> are forms that are outside the crown group . Modern amphibians have recently been suggested as descendants of <unk> , which would place them within crown <unk> . Below is a cladogram from <unk> et al . ( 2003 ) placing <unk> within crown <unk> : \n', ' Other studies place modern amphibians as the descendants of <unk> and place <unk> in a more basal position within the stem of <unk> . Below is a cladogram from <unk> and <unk> ( 1999 ) placing <unk> outside crown <unk> : \n', ' Most phylogenetic analyses of <unk> interrelationships focus on individual families . One of the first broad @-@ scale studies of <unk> phylogeny was conducted by paleontologist Andrew <unk> in 1990 . A 2007 study made a " <unk> " of all <unk> families , combining the family @-@ level trees of previous studies . The following cladogram is modified from <unk> et al . ( 2007 ) : \n', ' 1 <unk> , 2 <unk> , 3 <unk> , 4 <unk> , 5 <unk> , 6 <unk> , 7 <unk> , 8 <unk> , 9 <unk> , 10 <unk> , 11 <unk> , 12 <unk> , 13 <unk> , 14 <unk> \n', ' The most basal group of <unk> is the superfamily <unk> . <unk> have several primitive or <unk> features , including a single <unk> <unk> and a bone called the <unk> that is absent in other <unk> . <unk> include the Late <unk> genus <unk> and the family <unk> . <unk> has also been included in <unk> , and is the oldest known <unk> family . <unk> <unk> is the oldest species , having been present over 330 million years ago during the <unk> stage of the Early <unk> . Recent analyses place <unk> outside <unk> in a more derived position . Other primitive <unk> include <unk> and <unk> . <unk> and <unk> , both described in 2005 from <unk> , are also primitive yet come from the Late <unk> . They are almost 40 million years younger than other basal <unk> , implying a long ghost lineage of species that are not yet known in the fossil record . \n', ' In 2000 , paleontologists Adam <unk> and Anne Warren produced a revised phylogeny of more derived <unk> , naming several new clades . Two major clades were <unk> and <unk> . <unk> includes the <unk> that were once called <unk> and includes two subfamilies , the <unk> and the <unk> . <unk> include small , mostly terrestrial <unk> that may be the ancestors of modern amphibians . <unk> include larger <unk> like <unk> . The second major clade , <unk> , includes most <unk> <unk> , as well as some <unk> groups . Within <unk> are the superfamily <unk> and the most derived <unk> , the <unk> . \n', ' <unk> and Warren also named <unk> , a clade of small aquatic <unk> from the <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . They placed <unk> within <unk> , but more recent studies disagree on their position . For example , a 2007 study places them even more basal than <unk> , while a 2008 study keeps them as basal <unk> . \n', ' Within <unk> , <unk> and Warren erected two major clades : <unk> and <unk> . <unk> include large <unk> <unk> like <unk> with flat heads and eyes near the back of the skull . <unk> include a diversity of <unk> , including large marine <unk> , aquatic <unk> , <unk> that survived into the Cretaceous , and <unk> with eyes near the front of their heads . In 2000 , paleontologists <unk> <unk> and Andrew <unk> named a third major clade of <unk> , the <unk> . This group included more primitive <unk> that could not be placed in either <unk> or <unk> , and included groups like <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . While <unk> and <unk> are still widely used , <unk> is not often supported as a true clade in recent analyses . <unk> and <unk> are now grouped with <unk> , but <unk> are still considered to be a primitive family of <unk> . \n', " A new phylogeny of <unk> was offered by paleontologist <unk> <unk> in 2013 . It supported many of the clades that were found by <unk> and Warren , but it did not find support for their division of derived <unk> into <unk> and <unk> . <unk> were found to be more closely related to <unk> than to <unk> , which were grouped with <unk> . The clade including <unk> and <unk> was named <unk> . In addition , <unk> named the clade containing all <unk> except <unk> <unk> and reinstated the name <unk> for the clade containing all <unk> except <unk> and <unk> . Below is the cladogram from <unk> 's analysis : \n", '', ' = = = Relationship to modern amphibians = = = \n', '', ' Modern amphibians ( frogs , <unk> , and <unk> ) are classified in <unk> . <unk> appear to have arisen in the <unk> . Molecular clock estimates place the first <unk> in the Late <unk> , but the first member of <unk> ( frogs and <unk> , but not <unk> ) is estimated to have appeared in the Middle <unk> using the same technique . Using fossil evidence , there are three main theories for the origin of modern amphibians . \n', ' One is that they evolved from <unk> <unk> . Another is that they evolved from <unk> , most likely the <unk> . A third hypothesis is that <unk> descended from <unk> and frogs and <unk> evolved from <unk> . \n', ' Recently , the theory that <unk> were the ancestors of all <unk> has gained wide support . The skull morphology of some small <unk> has been compared to those of modern frogs and <unk> , but the presence of <unk> , <unk> teeth in small , <unk> or immature <unk> has been cited as the most convincing argument in favor of the <unk> origin of <unk> . <unk> in <unk> and many <unk> <unk> , <unk> teeth have <unk> tips and bases . During the development of most <unk> , teeth begin to <unk> at their tips . <unk> normally proceeds downward to the base of the tooth , but <unk> from the tip stops abruptly in <unk> teeth . <unk> resumes at the base , leaving an area in the center of the tooth <unk> . This pattern is seen in living amphibians and fossils . \n', ' The <unk> family <unk> is thought to be most closely related to <unk> . In 2008 , an <unk> called <unk> <unk> was named from Texas and was nicknamed the " <unk> " for its frog @-@ like head and <unk> @-@ like body . It was thought to be the most closely related <unk> to <unk> and was placed as the sister taxon of the group in a phylogenetic analysis . Another species of <unk> called <unk> <unk> is now thought to be even more closely related to <unk> . Unlike <unk> , <unk> was known since 1969 , and the presence of <unk> teeth in its jaws has led some paleontologists to conclude soon after its naming that it was a relative of modern amphibians . It was first described as a " <unk> " , and the specific name <unk> means " connecting " in reference to its inferred transitional position between <unk> and <unk> . The structure of its <unk> , a disk @-@ like membrane that functions like an ear drum , is similar to that of frogs and has also been used as evidence for a close relationship . Other features including the shape of the palate and the back of the skull , the short ribs , and the smooth skull surface also point to it being a closer relative of <unk> than is <unk> . Below is a cladogram modified from <unk> and <unk> ( 2010 ) showing the relationships of <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> : \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Feeding = = = \n', '', ' Although the earliest <unk> were primarily <unk> , they had the ability to feed on land . Later , <unk> and <unk> , some well adapted to terrestrial life , also fed on land . Some <unk> became better adapted toward life in water , and shifted their diets toward aquatic organisms . The first primarily aquatic <unk> were <unk> in the <unk> . <unk> and <unk> became independently aquatic and also returned to this type of feeding . \n', ' Most aquatic <unk> have flattened heads . When feeding , they probably opened their mouths by lifting their skulls instead of lowering their lower jaws . The jaw mechanics of the <unk> <unk> is well known , and is one of the most highly adapted . <unk> is thought to have lifted its skull to around 50 ° above horizontal through the <unk> of the <unk> @-@ <unk> joint between the <unk> <unk> of the skull and the <unk> <unk> of the neck . As the skull is raised , the <unk> bone pushes forward and causes the lower jaw to <unk> outward . Other <unk> probably also lifted their skulls , but they are not as well adapted for such movement . <unk> Watson was the first to suggest skull lifting as a means of feeding in <unk> . He envisioned that <unk> , a much larger <unk> than <unk> , was able to make the same movement . <unk> <unk> <unk> also supported the idea in 1959 , suggesting that <unk> also fed in this way . At the time it was thought that these <unk> lifted their heads with strong jaw muscles , but it is now thought that they used larger muscles in the neck that were attached to the large pectoral <unk> . <unk> , a close relative of <unk> , also has a <unk> skeleton that muscles may have attached to . <unk> has very small teeth and a large area for muscle attachment behind the skull , suggesting that it could <unk> feed by rapidly opening its mouth . \n', ' Unlike <unk> <unk> , terrestrial <unk> have skulls that are adapted for biting land @-@ living prey . The <unk> between the bones of the skull in the <unk> <unk> are able to withstand a high degree of compression . <unk> forces would have been experienced when biting down on prey . Earlier aquatic <unk> and <unk> ancestors differ from <unk> like <unk> in that their skulls were also built to withstand tension . This tension would have been experienced during <unk> feeding underwater . <unk> like <unk> were among the first <unk> that were almost exclusively terrestrial and fed by biting . \n', '', ' = = = Reproduction = = = \n', '', ' <unk> , like all amphibians , reproduced in aquatic environments . Most <unk> probably reproduced through external fertilization . Like most living frogs , female <unk> would have laid masses of eggs in water while males released sperm to <unk> them . Several fossils were described from the Early <unk> of Texas in 1998 that may be egg masses of <unk> <unk> . They were the first known fossils of amphibian eggs . The fossils consist of small disks with thin membranes that are probably <unk> membranes and <unk> @-@ like areas surrounding them that are most likely <unk> coatings . They are attached to plant fossils , suggesting that these <unk> laid eggs on aquatic plants much like modern frogs . The <unk> membranes show that the eggs were laid by amphibians , not fish ( their eggs lack <unk> ) , but the type of amphibian that laid them cannot be known because no body fossils are preserved with the eggs . The eggs are thought to be from <unk> because they are likely to be close relatives of modern amphibians , and probably had similar reproductive strategies . They are also the most common amphibians from the deposit in which the eggs were found . \n', " One <unk> , the <unk> <unk> , may have <unk> young in an area between the gills called the <unk> <unk> . Small bones belonging to younger <unk> individuals have been found in these pouches . The living Darwin 's Frog is also a mouth <unk> and would be the closest modern <unk> to <unk> if it cared for its young in this way . An alternative possibility is that <unk> was <unk> , eating its young like many amphibians do today . If this was the case , the bones of these smaller individuals were originally located in the throat and were pushed into the <unk> <unk> as the animal <unk> . \n", ' Body impressions of Early <unk> <unk> from Pennsylvania suggest that some terrestrial <unk> mated on land like some modern amphibians . They reproduced through internal fertilization rather than mating in water . The presence of three individuals in one block of sandstone shows that the <unk> were gregarious . The head of one individual rests under the tail of another in what may be a courtship display . Internal fertilization and similar courtship behavior are seen in modern <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Growth = = = \n', '', ' While most types of <unk> are distinguished on the basis of features in mature specimens , several are known from juvenile and <unk> specimens . <unk> is seen in <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , with aquatic larvae developing into adults capable of living on land . Several types of <unk> do not fully <unk> , but retain features of juveniles such as gills and small body size in what is known as <unk> . <unk> and the <unk> <unk> were also <unk> because they retained gills , but they are only known from adult specimens . \n', ' <unk> larvae are often distinguished by poorly developed bones and the presence of a <unk> apparatus , a series of bones that gills would attach to in life . However , some fully mature <unk> also possess <unk> bones but did not have external gills . A dense covering of scales is also seen in larvae and adults . Major body changes occur in <unk> , including the <unk> and strengthening of skull bones , the <unk> of <unk> bones , and an increase in body size . \n', ' <unk> like <unk> are known from both large adult specimens and small larvae , showing an extreme change in body shape . In these species , the shape and proportions of skull bones change in the early stages of development . The ornamentation on the surface of the skull roof also develops at this time . Small , regularly spaced pits are the first to form , followed by larger ridges . As development continues , the external gills disappear . Small teeth that once covered the palate are lost . The <unk> skeleton does not develop at the same rate as the skull , with ossification ( the replacement of cartilage by bone ) happening more slowly . <unk> and limb bones are poorly developed , ribs and fingers are absent in the early stages , and the <unk> and <unk> are entirely absent through most of development . Once maturity is reached , most bones have fully formed and growth rate slows . The bones of some <unk> like <unk> show growth marks , possibly an indication that growth rate varied with the change in seasons . <unk> of <unk> like <unk> and <unk> show that individuals grew larger past maturity . The oldest individuals usually have more <unk> on their skulls with deeper <unk> . \n', ' One group of <unk> , the <unk> , is also known from <unk> specimens . <unk> like <unk> and <unk> are represented by many fossils preserving skin and external gills . An entire growth series is exhibited in the wide range of sizes among specimens , but the lack of <unk> adapted adult forms suggests that these <unk> were <unk> . Unlike other <unk> , their <unk> skeletons developed quickly but were still partly <unk> when fully mature . Adults likely had an aquatic lifestyle similar to juveniles . Recently , large specimens of <unk> <unk> were described with adaptations toward a terrestrial lifestyle , indicating that not all <unk> were <unk> . \n', " While most <unk> are aquatic in early stages of life , most <unk> appear to have been terrestrial in their juvenile stage . Like other <unk> <unk> , adult <unk> were adapted to a <unk> lifestyle . Their bones are not highly developed for movement on land . The cross @-@ <unk> thickness of limb bones in adult <unk> shows that they could not withstand the stress of terrestrial <unk> . <unk> individuals have bones that are thick enough to withstand this stress , and could probably move about on land . To maintain a terrestrial lifestyle , a <unk> 's limb bones would have to <unk> with positive <unk> , meaning that they would grow at a greater rate than the rest of the body . This is not the case in <unk> , meaning that as their bodies grew larger they became less adapted toward a terrestrial lifestyle . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> and other early <unk> have rounded <unk> <unk> in the back of the skull that project into the cheek region . In life , the <unk> notch would have been covered by a membrane called the <unk> , which is seen as a disk @-@ like area in living frogs . The <unk> is involved in hearing , and is similar to the ear drum of more advanced <unk> . It was traditionally thought that the <unk> developed very early in <unk> evolution as a hearing organ and progressed to form the ear drum of <unk> . Thus , <unk> possessed a hearing system supposedly ancestral to that of living amphibians and reptiles . \n', ' <unk> and all other living <unk> have a rod @-@ like bone called the <unk> that aids in hearing by transferring <unk> from the ear drum — or <unk> <unk> — to the inner ear . <unk> also have a <unk> , which projects into the <unk> cavity . The <unk> likely evolved from the <unk> of lobe @-@ <unk> fishes . The positioning of the <unk> and the shape of the <unk> region suggests that the <unk> of <unk> and frogs are <unk> , but the <unk> of these amphibians are no longer considered <unk> with the hearing systems of reptiles , birds , and mammals . Therefore , ear structures in <unk> were not ancestral to those of all other <unk> . \n', ' The ability of the <unk> and <unk> to effectively transmit <unk> is called <unk> matching . Early <unk> like <unk> have thick <unk> with poor <unk> matching , so it is now thought that they were not used for hearing . Instead , these thick <unk> may have functioned to support the tissue that covers the <unk> notch . Early <unk> like <unk> could not hear airborne sound but would have been able to detect vibration in the ground . Later <unk> like <unk> had <unk> regions adapted to hearing . <unk> has a structure in the inner ear called the <unk> <unk> , which is also seen in frogs and is associated with hearing . Its <unk> is also a better <unk> of sound . The hearing system of <unk> and related <unk> was able to detect airborne sound and may have been ancestral to that of living amphibians . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> de Bayeux = \n', '', " <unk> de Bayeux ( <unk> 1121 to <unk> ) was a medieval English <unk> and archdeacon in the Diocese of York . A relative of <unk> , the Archbishop of York , <unk> probably owed his ecclesiastical positions to this relative . After <unk> 's death , <unk> was opposed to one of the candidates for the archbishopric , William <unk> , and worked to secure <unk> 's deposition and replacement by Henry <unk> . After <unk> 's death in <unk> , <unk> tried to prevent the return of <unk> , but these attempts were unsuccessful . When <unk> died suddenly in 1154 , <unk> was accused of murdering the newly returned archbishop . Although he was never convicted of the murder in either a secular or an ecclesiastical court , he was stripped of his clerical status and became a <unk> before <unk> . He died after <unk> , perhaps even after 1194 . \n", '', ' = = Early life = = \n', '', ' <unk> was first mentioned in the historical record between 1121 and 1128 when he appears in a charter , which although likely a forgery , probably contains an authentic witness list . This document lists him as " <unk> archdeacon " , which means that he probably held the <unk> of Richmond . He was the nephew of <unk> , who was Archbishop of York from <unk> to 1140 . <unk> he owed his position as archdeacon to his uncle and was probably appointed at a young age . A charter of <unk> \'s , dating to around 1138 , names <unk> explicitly as <unk> \'s nephew . \n', '', ' = = Opposition to William <unk> = = \n', '', " <unk> was opposed to the election of William <unk> as Archbishop of York and supported William 's rival and successor Henry <unk> . Although he remained a supporter of <unk> after <unk> , he did oppose <unk> 's <unk> in <unk> Abbey , where <unk> had deposed one abbot and appointed another . In <unk> , <unk> deposed <unk> 's choice as abbot of <unk> and appointed another abbot . Originally , <unk> had supported Elias <unk> , <unk> 's choice for abbot , but then changed his stance and helped with the deposition . \n", " After <unk> 's death in <unk> , <unk> was opposed to William 's return as archbishop , but was unsuccessful in his attempts to prevent William 's <unk> . William died a week after his return to York , however , and <unk> , along with Robert of <unk> , the Dean of York , secured the quick election of the new archbishop , Roger de <unk> L <unk> . \n", '', ' = = <unk> accusations = = \n', '', " <unk> was accused of murdering William , specifically by poisoning him through the communion <unk> . A fellow <unk> , <unk> , who had been a <unk> of the deceased archbishop , brought murder charges against <unk> . <unk> obtained a hearing on the charges at a royal council presided over by King Stephen of England at <unk> in 1154 , but Stephen 's subsequent death prevented a resolution . <unk> attempted to have the trial switched to an ecclesiastical court and was supported in his efforts by Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury . A trial was finally held in <unk> and <unk> 's <unk> did not produce any witnesses , but <unk> was unable to prove his innocence , prompting the transfer of the case to a papal court . No record of any judgment exists , but <unk> apparently appeared before two <unk> , Adrian IV and Alexander III . A further appeal to the papal court was referred to papal judges @-@ delegate between 1175 and 1180 . \n", " The case attracted commentary by two contemporary writers . John of Salisbury , who was a secretary for Theobald , added information about <unk> in a letter to Alexander III on unrelated business . In the section of the letter , John pointed out to the pope that no matter what others might say about <unk> , he had failed to secure other clergy willing to <unk> that he was innocent . Another contemporary , Gilbert Foliot , who was Bishop of Hereford , wrote to the pope to remind him that although <unk> 's <unk> had offered to prove his accusations by undergoing a trial by ordeal , this was essentially meaningless since canon law forbade the clergy from the ordeal . \n", '', ' = = Later life and death = = \n', '', ' <unk> was no longer archdeacon by <unk> , as his successor is attested by that point . <unk> , however , continued to call himself " archdeacon " even though he held land as a secular lord , including lands in Lacy and <unk> . He also acted as a steward for Hugh de <unk> . <unk> was still alive in <unk> , as he was a witness to a document at York then , and may have been alive as late as 1194 , when Hugh <unk> was responsible for the farm of <unk> \'s lands , as the record of that transaction in the <unk> roll is unclear if <unk> was alive at that time or dead . \n', ' <unk> had two sons , William de Bayeux and <unk> de <unk> . <unk> was a benefactor to a number of monasteries , including Drax Priory , <unk> Priory and <unk> Priory . He also gave land to a hospital in York and to the Templars and Hospitallers . \n', '', '', ' = Dvorak technique = \n', '', ' The Dvorak technique ( developed between 1969 and 1984 by Vernon Dvorak ) is a widely used system to estimate tropical cyclone intensity ( which includes tropical depression , tropical storm , and hurricane / typhoon / intense tropical cyclone <unk> ) based solely on visible and infrared satellite images . Within the Dvorak satellite strength estimate for tropical cyclones , there are several visual patterns that a cyclone may take on which define the upper and lower bounds on its intensity . The primary patterns used are curved band pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , shear pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , central dense <unk> ( <unk> ) pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , central cold cover ( <unk> ) pattern , banding eye pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , and eye pattern ( <unk> - <unk> ) . \n', ' Both the central dense <unk> and embedded eye pattern use the size of the <unk> . The <unk> pattern <unk> start at <unk> , equivalent to minimal tropical storm intensity ( 40 mph , 65 km / h ) . The shape of the central dense <unk> is also considered . The eye pattern utilizes the <unk> of the cloud tops within the surrounding mass of thunderstorms and contrasts it with the temperature within the eye itself . The larger the temperature difference is , the stronger the tropical cyclone . Once a pattern is identified , the storm features ( such as length and <unk> of banding features ) are further analyzed to arrive at a particular T @-@ number . The <unk> pattern indicates little development is occurring , despite the cold cloud tops associated with the quickly evolving feature . \n', " Several agencies issue Dvorak intensity numbers for tropical cyclones and their precursors , including the National Hurricane Center 's Tropical Analysis and <unk> Branch ( <unk> ) , the <unk> / <unk> <unk> Analysis Branch ( <unk> ) , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center at the Naval Meteorology and <unk> Command in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . \n", '', ' = = Evolution of the method = = \n', '', " The initial development of this technique occurred in 1969 by Vernon Dvorak , using satellite pictures of tropical cyclones within the northwest Pacific ocean . The system as it was initially conceived involved pattern matching of cloud features with a development and decay model . As the technique matured through the 1970s and 1980s , measurement of cloud features became dominant in defining tropical cyclone intensity and central pressure of the tropical cyclone 's low @-@ pressure area . Use of infrared satellite imagery led to a more objective assessment of the strength of tropical cyclones with eyes , using the cloud top temperatures within the eyewall and contrasting them with the warm temperatures within the eye itself . <unk> on short term intensity change are used less frequently than they were back in the 1970s and 1980s . The central pressures assigned to tropical cyclones have required modification , as the original estimates were 5 @-@ 10 hPa ( 0 @.@ 15 @-@ 0 @.@ 29 inHg ) too low in the Atlantic and up to 20 hPa ( 0 @.@ 59 inHg ) too high in the northwest Pacific . This led to the development of a separate wind @-@ pressure relationship for the northwest Pacific , devised by Atkinson and Holliday in 1975 , then modified in 1977 . \n", " As human analysts using the technique lead to <unk> biases , efforts have been made to make more objective estimates using computer programs , which have been aided by higher @-@ resolution satellite imagery and more powerful computers . Since tropical cyclone satellite patterns can <unk> over time , automated techniques use a six @-@ hour averaging period to lead to more reliable intensity estimates . Development of the objective Dvorak technique began in 1998 , which performed best with tropical cyclones that had eyes ( of hurricane or typhoon strength ) . It still required a manual center placement , keeping some <unk> within the process . By 2004 , an advanced objective Dvorak technique was developed which utilized banding features for systems below hurricane intensity and to <unk> determine the tropical cyclone 's center . A central pressure bias was uncovered in 2004 relating to the slope of the <unk> and cloud top temperatures which change with latitude that helped improve central pressure estimates within the objective technique . \n", '', ' = = Details of the method = = \n', '', ' In a developing cyclone , the technique takes advantage of the fact that cyclones of similar intensity tend to have certain characteristic features , and as they strengthen , they tend to change in appearance in a predictable manner . The structure and organization of the tropical cyclone are tracked over 24 hours to determine if the storm has weakened , maintained its intensity , or strengthened . Various central cloud and banding features are compared with <unk> that show typical storm patterns and their associated intensity . If infrared satellite imagery is available for a cyclone with a visible eye pattern , then the technique utilizes the difference between the temperature of the warm eye and the surrounding cold cloud tops to determine intensity ( colder cloud tops generally indicate a more intense storm ) . In each case a " T @-@ number " ( an abbreviation for Tropical Number ) and a Current <unk> ( <unk> ) value are assigned to the storm . These measurements range between 1 ( minimum intensity ) and 8 ( maximum intensity ) . The T @-@ number and <unk> value are the same except for weakening storms , in which case the <unk> is higher . For weakening systems , the <unk> is held as the tropical cyclone intensity for 12 hours , though research from the National Hurricane Center indicates that six hours is more reasonable . The table at right shows the approximate surface wind speed and sea level pressure that corresponds to a given T @-@ number . The amount a tropical cyclone can change in strength per 24 ‑ hour period is limited to 2 @.@ 5 T @-@ numbers per day . \n', '', ' = = = Pattern types = = = \n', '', ' Within the Dvorak satellite strength estimate for tropical cyclones , there are several visual patterns that a cyclone may take on which define the upper and lower bounds on its intensity . The primary patterns used are curved band pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , shear pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , central dense <unk> ( <unk> ) pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , banding eye pattern ( <unk> @-@ <unk> ) , eye pattern ( <unk> - <unk> ) , and central cold cover ( <unk> ) pattern . Both the central dense <unk> and embedded eye pattern utilize the size of the <unk> . The <unk> pattern <unk> start at <unk> , equivalent to minimal tropical storm intensity ( 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) ) . The shape of the central dense <unk> is also considered . The farther the center is <unk> into the <unk> , the stronger it is deemed . Tropical cyclones with maximum sustained winds between 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) and 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) can have their center of <unk> obscured by cloudiness within visible and infrared satellite imagery , which makes diagnosis of their intensity a challenge . \n', ' The <unk> pattern , with its large and quickly developing mass of thick <unk> clouds spreading out from an area of convection near a tropical cyclone center within a short time frame , indicates little development . When it develops , rainbands and cloud lines around the tropical cyclone weaken and the thick cloud shield <unk> the circulation center . While it resembles a <unk> pattern , it is rarely seen . \n', ' The eye pattern utilizes the <unk> of the cloud tops within the surrounding mass of thunderstorms and contrasts it with the temperature within the eye itself . The larger the temperature difference is , the stronger the tropical cyclone . Winds within tropical cyclones can also be estimated by tracking features within the <unk> using rapid scan <unk> satellite imagery , whose pictures are taken minutes apart rather than every half @-@ hour . \n', ' Once a pattern is identified , the storm features ( such as length and <unk> of banding features ) are further analyzed to arrive at a particular T @-@ number . \n', '', ' = = Usage = = \n', '', " Several agencies issue Dvorak intensity numbers for tropical cyclones and their precursors . These include the National Hurricane Center 's Tropical Analysis and <unk> Branch ( <unk> ) , the National <unk> and <unk> Administration 's <unk> Analysis Branch ( <unk> ) , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center at the Naval Pacific Meteorology and <unk> Center in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . \n", ' The National Hurricane Center will often quote Dvorak T @-@ numbers in their tropical cyclone products . The following example is from discussion number 3 of Tropical Depression 24 ( eventually Hurricane <unk> ) of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season : \n', ' <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> IN <unk> A <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> / 35 <unk> . <unk> ... <unk> THE <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> 12 <unk> <unk> THE <unk> <unk> . <unk> ... THE <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> 30 <unk> . \n', " Note that in this case the Dvorak T @-@ number ( in this case <unk> ) was simply used as a guide but other factors determined how the NHC decided to set the system 's intensity . \n", ' The Cooperative Institute for Meteorological <unk> Studies ( <unk> ) at the University of Wisconsin – Madison has developed the <unk> Dvorak <unk> ( <unk> ) . This is a modified version of the Dvorak technique which uses computer algorithms rather than <unk> human interpretation to arrive at a <unk> number . This is generally not implemented for tropical depressions or weak tropical storms . The China Meteorological Agency ( <unk> ) is expected to start using the standard 1984 version of Dvorak in the near future . The Indian Meteorological Department ( <unk> ) prefers using visible satellite imagery over infrared imagery due to a perceived high bias in estimates derived from infrared imagery during the early morning hours of convective maximum . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) uses the infrared version of Dvorak over the visible imagery version . Hong Kong Observatory and JMA continue to utilize Dvorak after tropical cyclone landfall . Various centers hold on to the maximum current intensity for 6 – 12 hours , though this rule is broken when rapid weakening is obvious . \n', ' Citizen science site Cyclone Center uses a modified version of the Dvorak technique to <unk> post @-@ 1970 tropical weather . \n', ' <unk> <unk> of Selected Tropical Storms and Associated T @-@ Number \n', '', ' = = <unk> and disadvantages = = \n', '', " The most significant benefit of the use of the technique is that it has provided a more complete history of tropical cyclone intensity in areas where aircraft reconnaissance is neither possible nor routinely available . <unk> estimates of maximum sustained wind are currently within 5 miles per hour ( 8 @.@ 0 km / h ) of what aircraft are able to measure half of the time , though the assignment of intensity of systems with strengths between moderate tropical @-@ storm force ( 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) ) and weak <unk> or typhoon @-@ force ( 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) ) is the least certain . Its overall precision has not always been true , as <unk> in the technique led to intensity changes between 1972 and 1977 of up to 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) . The method is internally consistent in that it <unk> rapid increases or decreases in tropical cyclone intensity . Some tropical cyclones <unk> in strength more than the 2 @.@ 5 T numbers per day limit allowed by the rule , which can work to the technique 's disadvantage and has led to occasional abandonment of the constraints since the 1980s . Systems with small eyes near the limb , or edge , of a satellite image can be biased too weakly using the technique , which can be resolved through use of polar @-@ orbiting satellite imagery . Subtropical cyclone intensity cannot be determined using Dvorak , which led to the development of the <unk> @-@ <unk> technique in 1975 . <unk> undergoing extratropical transition , losing their thunderstorm activity , see their <unk> underestimated using the Dvorak technique . This led to the development of the Miller and <unk> extratropical transition technique which can be used under these circumstances . \n", '', '', ' = New York State Route <unk> = \n', '', ' New York State Route <unk> ( NY <unk> ) was a state highway in central New York in the United States . It served as a connector between NY 31 , its parent route , in the Cayuga County village of <unk> and NY 5 in the Onondaga County town of Elbridge . NY <unk> was assigned c . 1933 , replacing New York State Route 293 , a route assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . The NY <unk> designation was removed in 1980 and replaced by County Route <unk> ( CR <unk> ) in Cayuga County and CR 99 in Onondaga County . \n', '', ' = = Route description = = \n', '', ' NY <unk> began at an intersection with its parent route , NY 31 , in the Cayuga County village of <unk> . The highway went eastward , intersecting with NY 34 less than 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 2 km ) later . Much of <unk> was <unk> , with the highway passing residential homes and businesses as it progressed eastward through the village . The highway intersected with CR <unk> before leaving <unk> and entering the town of Brutus as Brutus Road . \n', ' In Brutus , NY <unk> continued to the east through the rural town , intersecting CR <unk> and passing the <unk> Rural Cemetery before turning to the southeast . After a short distance , the highway went through an isolated area of homes , where it intersected with CR 14 and CR <unk> . NY <unk> continued on , intersecting several local highways before crossing into Onondaga County and terminating at an intersection with NY 5 in the town of Elbridge . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', ' What became NY <unk> was originally designated as NY 293 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 293 was renumbered to NY <unk> c . 1933 , allowing the NY 293 designation to be transferred to another highway in Orange County . NY <unk> remained unchanged until January 2 , 1980 , when the NY <unk> designation was removed . \n', " <unk> and maintenance of NY <unk> 's former routing was gradually transferred to the counties it went through , namely Cayuga and Onondaga . The first section to be transferred was the portion within Onondaga County , which was given to the county on April 1 , 1980 , and designated as CR 99 . The Cayuga County section of former NY <unk> was transferred to the county one year later on April 1 , 1981 , and designated as CR <unk> for the state route that preceded it . \n", '', ' = = Major intersections = = \n', '', '', '', ' = Ben Amos = \n', '', ' Benjamin Paul " Ben " Amos ( born 10 April 1990 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Bolton Wanderers . Born in Macclesfield , Cheshire , Amos began his career with Crewe Alexandra \'s youth academy , but joined Manchester United at the age of 11 . He has spent time on loan at Peterborough United , Molde , and Oldham Athletic . Additionally , Amos is an England youth international , having represented his country at every level from Under @-@ 16 to Under @-@ 21 . \n', '', ' = = Club career = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Crewe Alexandra = = = \n', '', " Amos was born in Macclesfield , Cheshire and was a member of the Crewe Alexandra academy until he was released at the age of 10 . While at Crewe , he also played for another local team , <unk> United , as a centre midfielder . One year later , Amos was playing for his local team against the team at the top of the table , and they needed to win the match to win the league . Amos ' team 's goalkeeper was injured during the game , and as the tallest on the team , Amos was put in goal ; however , he had also been the team 's regular penalty taker all season , so when they were awarded a penalty , he went all the way up the pitch to take the kick . He scored , and his team went on to win the game 3 – 2 , together with the league title . After the game , his parents told him that a Manchester United scout had been watching him and that he had been invited for trials . Amos joined Manchester United at the age of 11 . \n", '', ' = = = Manchester United = = = \n', '', " In his first season at Manchester United , Amos became a regular starter for the club 's Under @-@ 13 team , playing in 19 out of 27 matches in the 2001 – 02 season . Amos was named as an unused substitute for the Under @-@ 18 side for the first time on 8 January 2005 , for a league game against Manchester City . His first appearance for the Under @-@ <unk> came exactly nine months later , on 8 October 2005 , coming on as a substitute for Danny Rose after starting goalkeeper Ron @-@ Robert <unk> was sent off in a 2 – 0 defeat to Bolton Wanderers . He was regularly named as an unused substitute during the 2005 – 06 season – including for two reserve team matches – but became a frequent starter for the Under @-@ <unk> in 2006 – 07 after signing a trainee contract in July 2006 . However , he missed the final of the 2006 – 07 FA Youth Cup with a <unk> shoulder . \n", " He retained his place in the Under @-@ 18 team for 2007 – 08 , in addition to making his debut for the reserve team against <unk> Athletic on 7 November 2007 , and during the season he impressed enough to be selected to go on the first @-@ team 's 2008 summer tour of South Africa . Amos was named as a substitute for all three matches of the tour , but did not play . <unk> route back from South Africa , United stopped off in Nigeria to play against Portsmouth on 27 July 2008 , with Amos replacing <unk> <unk> after 76 minutes . He made his competitive first @-@ team debut on 23 September 2008 in a 3 – 1 win at home to Middlesbrough in the third round of the League Cup . On 14 December 2008 , Amos travelled to Japan with the Manchester United squad for the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup , having been called up as a late replacement for Ben Foster , who had suffered a hand injury while training . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> to Peterborough and Molde = = = \n', '', " On 29 October 2009 , Amos signed for the Championship team Peterborough United on a month 's loan as cover for Peterborough 's suspended first @-@ choice goalkeeper Joe Lewis . He made his only appearance on 31 October in a 2 – 1 defeat against Barnsley . After returning to Manchester United , Amos was again sent out on loan in March 2010 , this time to Norwegian side Molde <unk> , where he remained on loan until 30 June 2010 . \n", '', ' = = = Return to Manchester United = = = \n', '', " Following the departure of Ben Foster from Manchester United to Birmingham City , United manager Alex Ferguson declared that Amos would be Manchester United 's third @-@ choice goalkeeper for the 2010 – 11 season behind Edwin van der <unk> and <unk> <unk> . He made his first appearance of the season on 26 October 2010 , starting in goal for United 's 3 – 2 win over Wolverhampton Wanderers in the fourth round of the League Cup . \n", " In United 's final Champions League group match on 7 December 2010 , Amos was picked to start against Valencia at Old Trafford . Pablo <unk> scored Valencia 's only goal past him after 32 minutes of the match – the first goal United had conceded in the Champions League that season – as the two sides played out a 1 – 1 draw . \n", '', ' = = = Loan to Oldham Athletic = = = \n', '', " With the signing of Danish goalkeeper Anders <unk> , Manchester United allowed Amos to join Oldham Athletic on loan for the remainder of the season on 7 January 2011 , although he would continue to train with Manchester United once a week . He made his debut against <unk> Town the next day and kept a clean sheet . However , three days later , he conceded all six goals in a 6 – 0 defeat at home to Southampton ; he allowed Adam <unk> 's 20 @-@ yard shot underneath his body for the second goal , and he was rounded by Lee <unk> for the sixth . \n", ' On 15 March 2011 , <unk> was ruled out for five weeks following a knee injury , so Amos was recalled from Oldham to cover for Edwin van der <unk> and <unk> <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Return to Manchester United = = = \n', '', " Amos made his first start of the 2011 – 12 season in a third round League Cup tie at <unk> Road against Leeds United . He kept a clean sheet as United cruised through to the next round winning 3 – 0 . He played again in the following round away at Aldershot Town , a game which United also won 3 – 0 and advanced to the quarter finals . He was in goal again for United 's League Cup game in a defeat against Championship club Crystal Palace on 30 November . It also seemed that he had moved above last season 's second choice <unk> <unk> in the pecking order , but was now third choice behind Anders <unk> and David de <unk> . He made his first Premier League start in a 2 – 0 home win against Stoke City on 31 January 2012 , keeping a clean sheet on his debut . \n", ' On 30 May 2012 , Amos signed a three @-@ year contract extension with Manchester United , which will keep him at the club until at least 2015 . \n', '', ' = = = Loan to Hull City = = = \n', '', ' On 31 July 2012 , Amos joined Championship team Hull City on a season @-@ long loan from Manchester United . Before the loan deal was completed , he had joined Hull on their pre @-@ season training camp in Portugal . He made his debut on 11 August 2012 in 7 – 6 penalty shoot @-@ out victory over Rotherham United in the first round of the 2012 – 13 Football League Cup . However , after 19 appearances , including two in the League Cup , Amos returned to Manchester United on 3 January 2013 . \n', '', ' = = = Loan to Carlisle United = = = \n', '', ' On 15 November 2013 , Amos joined League One team Carlisle United on a month @-@ long loan from Manchester United . \n', '', ' = = = Loan to Bolton Wanderers = = = \n', '', " On 30 January 2015 he joined Championship club Bolton Wanderers on a month 's loan to provide competition for Andy Lonergan after <unk> <unk> was ruled out with an ankle injury picked up in training . On 21 February 2015 he made his Bolton debut as a substitute for the injured Lonergan as Wanderers lost 4 – 1 to Nottingham Forest at the City Ground . He played nine Championship games for Bolton before his loan expired on 4 April . \n", '', ' = = = Return to Manchester United = = = \n', '', ' Ben Amos returned to Manchester United after his loan spell at Bolton Wanderers , but on 10 June 2015 , it was announced on Manchester United website that Ben Amos has been released from the club along with four other players . \n', '', ' = = = Bolton Wanderers = = = \n', '', ' On 1 July 2015 , Amos returned to Bolton Wanderers following his release from Manchester United , signing a four @-@ year contract with the club . \n', '', ' = = International career = = \n', '', ' Amos is an England youth international , having played for his country at the Under @-@ 16 , Under @-@ 17 , Under @-@ 18 , Under @-@ 19 , Under @-@ 20 and Under @-@ 21 levels . He was called up to the Under @-@ 21 squad in 2011 for their friendly match against Iceland , but he was an unused substitute . \n', '', ' = = Career statistics = = \n', '', ' As of 1 December 2015 \n', '', ' = = Honours = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Club = = = \n', '', ' Manchester United \n', ' FIFA Club World Cup ( 1 ) : 2008 \n', '', ' = = Personal life = = \n', '', ' Amos attended <unk> High School , where he earned 11 GCSEs at grade C or above . \n', '', '', ' = Clayton <unk> = \n', '', ' Clayton Edward <unk> ( born March 19 , 1988 ) is an American professional baseball pitcher for the Los Angeles Dodgers of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . A left @-@ handed starting pitcher , <unk> has played in the major leagues since 2008 , and his career earned run average ( ERA ) and <unk> and hits per innings pitched average ( <unk> ) are the lowest among starters in the live @-@ ball era with a minimum of 1 @,@ 000 innings pitched . With his Career Hits <unk> Per Nine <unk> <unk> average ( 6 @.@ 64 ) Which is the second lowest in MLB History , a three @-@ time Cy Young Award winner , the 2014 National League Most Valuable Player and Los Angeles Dodgers All Time Leader in walks and hits per innings pitched ( 1 @.@ 01 ) and hits allowed per nine innings pitched ( 6 @.@ 64 ) , <unk> is considered by many to be the best pitcher in MLB . \n', " <unk> was drafted seventh overall in the 2006 MLB draft . He worked his way through the Dodgers ' farm system in just one full season , and reached the majors at 20 years old . When he debuted in 2008 , he was the youngest player in MLB , a title he held for one full year . In 2011 , he won the pitching Triple Crown and the National League Cy Young Award , becoming the youngest pitcher to accomplish either of these feats since Dwight <unk> in 1985 . <unk> pitched a no @-@ hitter on June 18 , 2014 , becoming the 22nd <unk> to do so . Being a left @-@ handed strikeout pitcher and playing for the Los Angeles Dodgers , <unk> has often been compared to Hall of Fame pitcher Sandy <unk> . He became the first pitcher in history to lead MLB in ERA for four consecutive years when he did so in the 2011 through 2014 seasons . \n", ' Off the field , <unk> is an active participant in volunteer work . He and his wife , Ellen , launched " <unk> \'s Challenge " and wrote the book <unk> to raise money to build an orphanage in Zambia . He has been honored with the Roberto <unk> Award and the Branch <unk> Award for his humanitarian work . \n', '', ' = = Early life = = \n', '', ' <unk> was born in Dallas , Texas on March 19 , 1988 . His parents divorced when he was 10 , and he was raised by his mother . He played in youth sports leagues as a child , including Little League Baseball . \n', ' <unk> attended nearby Highland Park High School , where he played baseball and was also the center for quarterback Matthew Stafford on the football varsity . After a growth <unk> and further development of his pitches , he established himself as an elite high school prospect in 2006 when he posted a 13 – 0 record with an earned run average ( ERA ) of 0 @.@ 77 , and recorded 139 strikeouts in 64 innings pitched . In a playoff game against Northwest High School of Justin , Texas , <unk> pitched an all @-@ strikeout perfect game . He struck out all 15 batters he faced in the game , which was shortened because of the mercy rule . He also pitched for USA Baseball \'s Junior National Team in the Pan Am Championship . <unk> was selected by USA Today as " High School Baseball Player of the Year " , and was also the <unk> National Player of the Year for baseball . \n', ' Entering the 2006 Major League Baseball ( MLB ) draft , <unk> was considered the top high @-@ school pitcher available . The Los Angeles Dodgers selected <unk> with the seventh overall pick in the draft . He had committed to Texas A & M University , but turned down the scholarship offer to sign with the Dodgers , with a bonus estimated at $ 2 @.@ 3 million . The bonus was the largest to any Dodgers draft pick at the time , and was eventually topped by Zach Lee in the 2010 draft . \n', '', ' = = Professional career = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Minor <unk> = = = \n', '', " <unk> began his career with the Gulf Coast League ( <unk> ) Dodgers . He pitched in 37 innings in which he struck out 54 batters ( walking only 5 ) , while compiling a record of 2 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 95 ERA . He featured a fastball that topped out at 96 miles per hour ( 154 km / h ) and he was rated as the top prospect in the <unk> , and the Dodgers ' second best prospect by Baseball America behind third baseman Andy <unk> . \n", ' <unk> was promoted to the Great Lakes <unk> in 2007 , where he recorded a record of 7 – 5 with a 2 @.@ 77 ERA . He was selected to play on the East Team in the Midwest League All @-@ Star Game and on the USA team in the All @-@ Star <unk> Game . On August 6 , he was promoted to the Double @-@ A Jacksonville Suns in the Southern League , where he produced a 1 – 2 record and 3 @.@ 65 ERA in five starts and was selected as the top prospect in the Dodgers organization heading into the 2008 season . \n', ' During spring training in a game against the Boston Red Sox , <unk> gained much attention for throwing a curveball to Sean Casey that started behind Casey but at the end looped into the strike zone and struck him out looking . <unk> was 0 – 3 and had a 2 @.@ 28 ERA with 47 strikeouts through <unk> ⁄ 3 innings pitched in his first stint of the year with the Suns . He was then called up to the majors on May 28 , 2008 , but optioned back to Jacksonville on July 2 . \n', ' <unk> pitched 18 innings during his second trip to Jacksonville ( two starts and one seven inning relief appearance ) , winning two games . During this stretch , he allowed only two runs earned runs , lowering his ERA to 1 @.@ 91 . He was recalled on July 22 . \n', '', ' = = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = 2008 – 2010 seasons : Early career = = = = \n', '', " On May 24 , 2008 , the Dodgers bought <unk> 's minor @-@ league contract , and he was added to the active roster . <unk> Tony Jackson called <unk> 's debut the most anticipated start by a Dodgers pitcher since <unk> <unk> 's major league debut during the 1995 season . He made his debut on May 25 , starting against the St. Louis Cardinals . He struck out the first batter he faced , <unk> <unk> , the first of seven strikeouts in the game , in which he pitched six innings and allowed two runs . When he debuted , <unk> was the youngest player in MLB , a title he held for one full year . \n", ' <unk> won his first major league game against the Washington <unk> on July 27 , 2008 . He pitched six @-@ plus shutout innings , allowing four hits , a walk , and he struck out five . <unk> finished his rookie season 5 – 5 , with a 4 @.@ 26 ERA in 22 games ( 21 starts ) . He also pitched two innings out of the bullpen for the Dodgers in the 2008 National League Championship Series ( NLCS ) against the Philadelphia Phillies . \n', " On April 15 , 2009 , <unk> pitched seven innings , striking out 13 batters while allowing only one hit ( a solo home run ) against the rival San Francisco Giants . He was the youngest <unk> to ever strikeout 13 or more batters in a game since Sandy <unk> did it in the 1955 season . On May 17 , 2009 , <unk> did not allow a hit against the Florida Marlins through 7 innings , then gave up a lead @-@ off double to Florida 's <unk> Ross . In 2009 , despite an 8 – 8 record , he led the major leagues in opposing batting average ( <unk> ) , opposing <unk> percentage ( <unk> ) , and hits per nine innings ( 6 @.@ 26 ) . He also posted an ERA of 2 @.@ 79 and 185 strikeouts . <unk> also walked 91 batters , which was second most in the National League ( NL ) . \n", ' <unk> made his playoff starting debut against the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2009 National League Division Series ( NLDS ) . He went 62 ⁄ 3 innings , striking out 4 , walking 1 , and ended up getting a no @-@ decision ( the Dodgers went on to win the game in the 9th inning ) . At 21 years old , he started the opener of the 2009 NLCS against the Philadelphia Phillies and was the third youngest pitcher to ever start a playoff series opener , behind only Fernando <unk> in the 1981 NLDS and Rick <unk> in the 2000 NLDS . \n', ' <unk> started the 2010 season by posting a 3 @.@ 07 ERA in April , but did so by walking 22 batters in 29 innings . On May 4 , he had his worst start of his career against the Milwaukee Brewers at <unk> Stadium , throwing just 57 pitches in 11 ⁄ 3 innings , while retiring only four of the 13 batters he faced — including the pitcher . He was <unk> loudly upon being pulled from the game . <unk> said after the game , " I didn \'t give our team any kind of chance . It \'s just not a good feeling to let your teammates down , let everybody down . It stings , it <unk> . I \'ve got to figure things out . " \n', ' <unk> rebounded his next start by pitching an 8 inning two @-@ hitter and out @-@ <unk> the then undefeated <unk> <unk> . He credited his control of the slider being the major turning point for him . Later in the season , he was suspended for five games after hitting Aaron <unk> of the Giants with a pitch in a game on July 20 . The incident occurred after both teams were given a warning following Giants ace Tim <unk> hitting Matt <unk> earlier in the game . He threw his first career complete game shutout on September 14 , 2010 also against San Francisco and finished the season with a record of 13 – 10 and a 2 @.@ 91 ERA in 32 starts , pitching <unk> ⁄ 3 innings and recording 212 strikeouts . \n', '', ' = = = = 2011 season : 1st Cy Young Award = = = = \n', '', " After finishing the 2010 season strong , the Dodgers named <unk> as the Opening Day <unk> for the 2011 season . On May 29 , he pitched the second complete @-@ game shutout of his career , striking out 10 while winning a two @-@ hitter against the Florida Marlins , 8 – 0 ; he also had two singles and an <unk> , scoring twice in the game . He produced his third career shutout on June 20 , a two @-@ hit , 11 @-@ strikeout effort against the Detroit Tigers . <unk> became the first Dodgers starter to strike out the side in the 9th inning since Sandy <unk> 's perfect game . In his next start , on June 26 , <unk> pitched another complete game ( against the Los Angeles Angels of <unk> ) . He became the first <unk> starter to have back @-@ to @-@ back complete game victories since Jeff Weaver in the 2005 season and the first <unk> to have double @-@ digit strikeouts in consecutive starts since Chan @-@ Ho Park in the 2000 season . He was awarded the National League Player of the Week award for the week of June 20 – 26 as a result of those two starts . Midway through June , <unk> had amassed 32 career victories , a 3 @.@ 15 ERA and 593 career strikeouts in 568 @.@ 2 innings . According to the Elias Sports Bureau , <unk> was the first 23 @-@ year @-@ old pitcher to have that many victories , an ERA that low and an average of more than one strikeout per inning since ERA became an official statistic in 1910 . \n", ' <unk> was selected to the National League team for the 2011 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , his first All @-@ Star selection . In the month of July , <unk> was 4 – 1 with a 2 @.@ 02 ERA and NL @-@ leading 45 strikeouts , earning him the National League Pitcher of the Month Award . On August 23 , he struck out Matt Holliday of the St. Louis Cardinals for his 200th strikeout of the season and became the 10th <unk> pitcher to record back @-@ to @-@ back 200 strikeout seasons and the first since Chan @-@ Ho Park did it in the 2001 season . \n', " <unk> finished the 2011 season by leading the NL with 21 wins , <unk> strikeouts and a 2 @.@ 28 ERA , winning the NL pitching Triple Crown , the first Triple Crown winner since Jake <unk> of the 2007 San Diego Padres and the first <unk> since Sandy <unk> won it in the 1966 season . Justin <unk> of the Detroit Tigers won the American League Triple Crown the same season , marking the first major @-@ league season since 1924 to feature Triple Crown @-@ winning pitchers in both leagues . <unk> 's 21 wins were the most by a <unk> pitcher since <unk> <unk> won 23 during the 1988 season . His ERA was the lowest by a <unk> since <unk> 's 2 @.@ 03 in the 1985 season , his strikeouts were the most by a <unk> since <unk> 's 317 in 1966 and his 233 1 ⁄ 3 innings pitched were the most since Chan Ho Park pitched 234 in 2001 . Since 1965 when <unk> did it , <unk> and <unk> are only two pitchers in the National League have led the league in wins , strikeouts , ERA , and <unk> ( walks plus hits per inning pitched ) . <unk> also became just the second <unk> to have a 240 @-@ plus strikeouts in a season before the age of 24 , joining Vida Blue . \n", ' After the season , <unk> was awarded the Warren <unk> Award as the best left @-@ handed pitcher in 2011 , the Players Choice Award for Most Outstanding National League pitcher , the Gold <unk> Award as the top fielding pitcher in the NL and the Sporting News ( <unk> ) National League Pitcher of the Year . He was additionally selected as the starting pitcher for the <unk> NL All @-@ Star Team . On November 17 , he was honored with the National League Cy Young Award , making him the youngest Cy Young winner since Dwight <unk> of the 1985 New York Mets . He was the 8th <unk> pitcher to win the award , the first since <unk> <unk> in the 2003 season . \n', '', ' = = = = 2012 season : Cy Young runner @-@ up = = = = \n', '', " On February 7 , 2012 , <unk> and the Dodgers agreed on a two @-@ year , $ 19 million contract . The contract was the second highest for a player in his first year of arbitration ( after Tim <unk> 's $ 23 million 2 @-@ year contract in 2010 ) . \n", " <unk> was the Dodgers ' Opening Day starter for the second year in a row , where he pitched three innings of shutout ball against the San Diego Padres at <unk> Park before being removed from the game due to flu @-@ like symptoms . On April 27 , he was able to last through eight innings for his second win of the season against the Washington <unk> . The win was also his 12th straight home win , tying him with Ed <unk> ( June 1960 – August 1962 ) and <unk> <unk> ( September 1984 – October 1985 ) for the longest home winning streak since the Dodgers moved to Los Angeles . <unk> won the National League 's Player of the Week Award for the week of May 14 – 20 after he made two starts during that week and pitched 16 scoreless innings , including his fourth career shutout . <unk> was selected to appear in the 2012 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , the second straight year he made the team . On August 11 , he went over 200 innings on the season , becoming the 12th Los Angeles <unk> pitcher with three or more seasons of 200 or more innings , and the first since <unk> did it five times from 1985 to 1989 . <unk> also became just the fifth <unk> pitcher with three straight 200 strikeout seasons . \n", " <unk> finished 2012 with a 14 – 9 record , a 2 @.@ 53 ERA ( leading the league ) , <unk> strikeouts , and <unk> ⁄ 3 innings pitched , coming second in both categories . He became the first pitcher to lead the league in ERA in consecutive seasons since Arizona 's Randy Johnson in 2001 – 02 . This was also marked his fourth year in a row with a sub @-@ 3 @.@ 00 ERA , making him the first to do this since Randy Johnson from 1999 – 2002 . He finished second for the NL Cy Young behind R. A. Dickey , receiving two first place votes . \n", '', ' = = = = 2013 season : 2nd Cy Young Award = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> made his third straight opening day start for the Dodgers in the 2013 season , the first <unk> starter to do so since Derek Lowe ( 2005 – 2007 ) . In that opening day start he pitched a complete game , four hit , shutout over the Giants and also hit his first career home run . He was the first pitcher to throw a shutout and hit a home run on opening day since Bob Lemon of the Cleveland Indians did so against the Chicago White Sox on April 14 , 1953 . <unk> picked up his 1,000th career strikeout on April 17 , 2013 , when he struck out <unk> Alonso of the Padres . He was the second youngest <unk> to reach that mark , behind only Fernando <unk> . On May 14 , <unk> passed the 1 @,@ 000 inning mark for his career . His ERA of 2 @.@ 70 at the time was the fifth best of the live @-@ ball era at the 1 @,@ 000 inning mark and the best career mark . He also threw 130 pitches that day , the most of his career and the most by a <unk> pitcher since <unk> Pérez in the 2003 season . \n', ' <unk> was selected to the 2013 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , his third straight selection . In July , he compiled a 4 – 1 record and 1 @.@ 34 ERA in six starts and was awarded his second National League Pitcher of the Month Award . On September 2 , <unk> picked up his 200th strikeout of 2013 , joining Hall of <unk> Sandy <unk> and Don <unk> as the only starters in Dodgers history with at least 4 consecutive seasons of more than 200 strikeouts . \n', ' <unk> finished the season with a 16 @-@ 9 record , 236 innings pitched ( a career high ) , and a Major League best 1 @.@ 83 ERA and 0 @.@ 92 <unk> . He was the third player in history to lead the Majors in ERA three years in a row , joining Greg <unk> ( 1993 – 95 ) and <unk> Grove ( 1929 – 31 ) . His ERA was the first sub @-@ 2 @.@ 00 ERA since Roger <unk> did it in the 2005 season and the lowest overall since Pedro Martínez in the 2000 season . He was only the third <unk> pitcher to have an ERA under 3 @.@ 00 in five consecutive seasons ( <unk> and <unk> <unk> ) . \n', ' <unk> struck out 12 batters in seven innings in the first game of the 2013 National League Division Series . That was the third most strikeouts by a <unk> pitcher in the playoffs , behind only <unk> ( 15 in the 1963 World Series ) and Carl <unk> ( 14 in the 1953 World Series ) . His six straight strikeouts in the game tied a MLB postseason record set by Tim <unk> in the second game of the 1988 World Series . He picked up his first career postseason victory in that game . \n', ' <unk> won the Warren <unk> Award for 2013 , the second time he had won the award , which honors the best left @-@ handed pitcher in the Major <unk> . He was also selected to the Sporting News NL All @-@ Star team , the fourth <unk> pitcher to be named to the team twice ( after <unk> , <unk> and Don <unk> ) . On November 13 , he won the NL Cy Young Award for the second time in three seasons . He became just the sixth pitcher in history to finish in the top two in voting three seasons in a row . \n', ' After the season , <unk> and the Dodgers agreed on a seven @-@ year , $ 215 million , contract extension . The deal was the richest in MLB history for a pitcher , eclipsing the seven @-@ year , $ 180 million , contract signed by Justin <unk> the previous year . The average annual value of $ 30 @.@ 7 million was also the largest ever for a baseball player , beating the $ 28 million Roger <unk> received in 2007 and the 10 @-@ year , $ 275 million contract that Alex Rodriguez signed that same year . \n', '', ' = = = = 2014 season : MVP and 3rd Cy Young Award = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> made his fourth straight opening day start for the Dodgers in 2014 , only the fourth <unk> ever to do so . This season the game was played at the Sydney Cricket Ground in Australia . Before his second start , <unk> felt some pain in his back and was placed on the disabled list for the first time in his career . He did not rejoin the Dodgers until early May . On June 18 , he pitched a complete game no @-@ hitter against the Colorado Rockies and struck out a career @-@ high 15 batters . The only batter to reach base was due to an error in the top of the seventh inning , costing <unk> a perfect game . He is the only pitcher in MLB history with 15 strikeouts in a game while allowing no hits and no walks . <unk> was 6 @-@ 0 with an 0 @.@ 82 ERA in June and was awarded with his third career Pitcher of the Month award . He was selected to the National League squad at the 2014 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game , his fourth straight selection . He was the sixth <unk> pitcher , and the first since Fernando <unk> to make the All @-@ Star team four years in a row . \n', " <unk> had a 41 inning scoreless inning streak that ended in the top of the sixth inning on July 10 when , with two outs , Chase <unk> <unk> to left field at <unk> Stadium . <unk> 's streak was , at the time , tied for the fifteenth longest scoreless inning streak in MLB history . He won the pitcher of the month award again in July , the third <unk> ( along with Don Sutton and Burt <unk> ) to win it two months in a row . He was 4 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 10 ERA in the month with 48 strikeouts and only 10 walks . He picked up his 200th strikeout of the season on September 2 , the fifth year in a row he had reached that number , trailing only the six seasons in a row for Sandy <unk> among <unk> starters . He also became just the fourth pitcher since 1893 to have at least five 200 @-@ strikeout seasons through an age @-@ 26 season ( Bert <unk> , Walter Johnson and Sam <unk> are the others ) . \n", ' <unk> finished the season 21 – 3 with a 1 @.@ 77 ERA in 27 starts . He led the National League in numerous categories once again , such as ERA , ERA + , Wins , <unk> % , <unk> , IP / <unk> , <unk> / 9 , <unk> @-@ to @-@ walk ratio , complete games , <unk> , and Wins Above <unk> for both pitchers and all NL players . He also finished third in strikeouts despite missing most of the first month of the season . He was the first pitcher in history to win four consecutive ERA titles . Many experts called his 2014 season one of the best pitching seasons in recent memory . \n', ' However , in his first start of the playoffs , in Game 1 of the Division Series against the Cardinals , <unk> became the first pitcher in history to strike out 10 while allowing eight runs . He had cruised through the first six innings while allowing only two hits ( both solo <unk> ) and surrendered six runs in the seventh . He did tie <unk> for the only Dodgers pitchers with multiple double digit strikeout games in the playoffs . He was also the first pitcher in history to give up at least seven runs in back @-@ to @-@ back postseason starts ( his previous one was Game 6 of the 2013 National League Championship Series ) . Pitching on short rest in Game 4 , he would again be dominant , but again would take the loss after giving up a 3 @-@ run home run to Matt Adams in the 7th inning . It was the first home run <unk> had allowed in his career to a left @-@ handed batter off his curveball . \n', ' <unk> was honored after the season with player of the year awards from both The Sporting News and Baseball America . He won three awards at the Players Choice Awards including Outstanding NL Pitcher , Player of the Year and the Marvin Miller Man of the Year Award . He also won his third ( and second straight ) Warren <unk> Award . On November 12 , he was awarded his third Cy Young Award in four seasons ( a unanimous vote ) . The following day , he was elected as the NL MVP , the first National League pitcher to win the award since Bob Gibson in 1968 and the first Dodgers player to win the award since Kirk Gibson in 1988 . \n', '', ' = = = = 2015 season : 300 @-@ strikeout season = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> made his fifth straight opening day start in 2015 , the first Dodgers pitcher to do so since Hall of Famer Don Sutton started seven in a row from 1972 through 1978 . He recorded his <unk> career strikeout on May 10 when he fanned Drew <unk> of the Colorado Rockies . <unk> picked up his 100th career win on May 15 against the Rockies . He became the 22nd pitcher in franchise history and the second youngest active pitcher to reach that mark . <unk> won his sixth career NL player of the week award for the week of June 1 – 7 , 2015 , when he allowed only two runs on 10 baserunners in 15 innings while striking out 18 in two starts that week . <unk> did not make the initial NL roster for the 2015 All @-@ Star Game , though he was included on the Final <unk> ballot , which he lost to Cardinals pitcher Carlos Martinez . However , he was added to the roster to replace <unk> pitcher Max <unk> , who was unavailable due to pitching the Sunday before the game . It became his fifth straight all @-@ star selection , joining Sandy <unk> and Fernando <unk> as the only Dodgers pitchers to accomplish that feat . <unk> struck out a season high 14 batters in eight shutout innings on July 18 against the Washington <unk> . He became the first Dodgers starter with back @-@ to @-@ back games of at least 13 strikeouts since Chan Ho Park in 2000 and the first Dodgers pitcher with back @-@ to @-@ back games of double @-@ digit strikeouts and no walks since <unk> Vance in 1930 . He shared the NL player of the week honors with his teammate Zack <unk> for the week of July 13 – 19 and won NL pitcher of the month for July . \n', " <unk> picked up his 200th strikeout of the season on August 12 , tying <unk> <unk> 's 1995 season for the fastest to that mark in Dodgers history at 156 innings . This was the sixth straight 200 strikeout season for <unk> , tying Sandy <unk> for the most in Dodgers franchise history . On October 4 , <unk> became the 11th player in Major League history to strike out 300 batters in a season , the first player since Randy Johnson did it in 2002 . He finished the season with a 16 – 7 record , a 2 @.@ 13 ERA , and <unk> strikeouts in 232 2 ⁄ 3 innings . \n", " In Game One of the 2015 National League Division Series , <unk> struck out 11 in 6 2 ⁄ 3 innings but allowed three runs for his fifth straight postseason loss . He and New York Mets starter Jacob deGrom were the first pair of starters to each throw at least 11 strikeouts in the same postseason game in MLB history . He rebounded in game four , earning the win on three days ' rest by allowing one run and three hits against eight strikeouts in seven innings on October 13 . <unk> finished third in the National League Cy Young Award voting , behind Jake <unk> and teammate Zack <unk> . In mid @-@ December 2015 , <unk> participated in an expedition to Cuba composed of MLB officials and players , including former Dodgers manager Joe Torre . It was the first visit by MLB since 1999 , and one anticipated as an important step to help <unk> relations with the United States that had begun to ease earlier in the year . \n", '', ' = = = = 2016 = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> made his sixth straight opening day start in 2016 as the Dodgers won 15 – 0 . It also marked the first time the Dodgers had won six straight opening day games , all of which he started . On May 12 against the New York Mets , he struck out 13 while pitching a three @-@ hit complete game shutout . He set an MLB record with six consecutive starts with at least 10 strikeouts and no more than one walk and a club record with six consecutive starts with at least 10 strikeouts . He picked up his 100th strikeout on May 29 , while only walking five batters within that period . That was the lowest walk total for a pitcher reaching 100 strikeouts in the modern era , beating Cliff Lee who had seven walks in the 2010 season . On June 30 , 2016 , <unk> was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list due to back pain . He received an <unk> , which revealed that there was a mild <unk> disc in the back , and received an <unk> injection to treat the pain . He was named to the 2016 All @-@ Star team but was unable to pitch in the game due to his injury . On July 20 , the Dodgers shut down <unk> for an indefinite period of time . He continued to feel discomfort in his back after a simulated game . \n', '', ' = = Pitching style = = \n', '', ' <unk> \'s pitching style relies on deception . He keeps the ball hidden so that it is hard for the batter to pick up the ball and has a consistent <unk> delivery on all of his pitches . Out of the <unk> , <unk> lowers his right foot vertically with a slight pause before moving it forward toward the plate . The motion was described during the 2015 National League Division Series as a " <unk> move " drawing comparison with one setting a <unk> on a bicycle . Out of the stretch , he uses a slide step as it makes it difficult for the base runner at first base to get a read on him . He has stated many times that he has modeled his pitching mechanics after his favorite pitcher growing up , Roger <unk> . \n', " <unk> 's repertoire includes a four @-@ seam fastball that sits anywhere from 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) to 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) and tops out at 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) with late movement , a slider at 84 miles per hour ( 135 km / h ) – 87 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) , a 12 – 6 curveball between 72 miles per hour ( 116 km / h ) – 76 miles per hour ( 122 km / h ) , and a seldom thrown changeup ( under 3 % ) . As of late in the 2015 season , he is believed to be experimenting with the use of a cutter . He is also known for having one of the better <unk> moves to first base and is considered one of the better fielding pitchers in the game . \n", '', ' = = = Preparation = = = \n', '', ' According to many teammates , <unk> is a noted <unk> . <unk> Ellis describes his preparation and <unk> during <unk> before each start : \n', " Three <unk> when I 'm standing up . I sit , and three <unk> down the middle . Then three <unk> either side . Three <unk> away . <unk> inside . Three <unk> to the middle . <unk> inside . Three <unk> to the middle . Then he goes to the stretch position . Two <unk> inside , two <unk> away , two <unk> , one fastball inside , two <unk> , one fastball inside , two <unk> . Back to the <unk> , and one fastball inside , one fastball away . Thirty @-@ four pitches in all . \n", '', ' = = Awards and accomplishments = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Awards = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Annual statistical achievements = = = \n', '', ' Notes : Through 2015 season . Per Baseball @-@ <unk> \n', '', ' = = Personal life = = \n', '', ' <unk> grew up in Dallas , Texas and attended school with quarterback Matthew Stafford and fellow pitchers Jordan <unk> and Shawn <unk> . One of his favorite players growing up was former Texas Rangers first baseman Will Clark , and the main reason he wears number 22 is to honor Clark . \n', " He is the great @-@ nephew of astronomer Clyde <unk> , the <unk> of Pluto . <unk> 's mother , born <unk> <unk> , is the daughter of Clyde <unk> 's younger brother . His father , Christopher George <unk> , was a musician and won a <unk> Award for his work . The elder <unk> remarried after his divorce from <unk> and died in 2013 . \n", " On December 4 , 2010 , <unk> married his girlfriend of seven years , Ellen <unk> . On January 23 , 2015 , Ellen gave birth to the couple 's first child , daughter <unk> Ann . He is a Methodist with strong religious faith . \n", ' <unk> made a cameo appearance in " Prince " , a Season 3 episode of New Girl which originally aired following <unk> \'s telecast of Super Bowl <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Humanitarian work = = = \n', '', ' Prior to the 2011 season , <unk> visited Zambia with his wife as part of a Christian mission organized by Dallas @-@ based <unk> Africa . After the trip , <unk> announced his dream of building an orphanage in <unk> , Zambia , which he called " Hope \'s Home " after 11 @-@ year @-@ old Hope , an HIV @-@ positive child <unk> met while in Zambia . To accomplish his goal , <unk> pledged a donation of $ 100 per strikeout recorded in 2011 . With <unk> \'s career high of <unk> strikeouts thrown during the 2011 season , he donated $ <unk> @,@ 300 toward his $ 70 @,@ 000 goal . When <unk> won the 2011 Players Choice Award , he donated $ 260 @,@ 000 to Hope \'s Home . He and his wife returned to Zambia in 2012 . <unk> donated $ 100 for every strikeout in the 2012 season to <unk> \'s Challenge , calling that season \'s incarnation of the project " Strike Out To Serve . " Seventy percent of the money raised in 2012 went to <unk> Africa , with 10 percent each going to the <unk> Foundation in Los Angeles , Mercy Street in Dallas , and I Am Second . In 2014 , <unk> continued to support the children of Zambia , with partnership with <unk> International , raising funds to pay for 170 children \'s <unk> and new medical equipment for <unk> hospital in <unk> . <unk> has continued his partnership with <unk> International in 2015 , setting a goal of funding 100 <unk> for <unk> \'s hospital in the Dominican Republic . \n', " In addition to Hope 's Home and <unk> 's Challenge , he has also helped with other programs in Los Angeles , such as helping Habitat for <unk> <unk> and <unk> a house in <unk> , California . He is also a supporter of the <unk> Foundation , which provides animal @-@ assisted <unk> and activities for at risk youth by <unk> with mental health practitioners , public service agencies and community organizations . \n", '', ' = = = Author = = = \n', '', ' <unk> and his wife , Ellen , co @-@ authored a book named <unk> : Live Out Your Faith and Dreams on Whatever Field You Find Yourself about their Christian faith and their humanitarian efforts . The book was released on January 10 , 2012 through <unk> Press . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> is a celebrity <unk> for <unk> , Wilson Sporting <unk> ( <unk> ) , Under Armour ( shoes ) , <unk> Milk , and <unk> . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> <unk> <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> <unk> ( born ca . 1945 or ca . 1953 , date uncertain ) is an <unk> @-@ speaking Indigenous Australian from Central Australia . Since first taking up painting around 1990 , her works of contemporary Indigenous Australian art have been acquired by several major collections including <unk> and the National Gallery of Victoria . Her paintings portray bush plum " dreaming " and women ’ s ceremonies ( known as <unk> ) . One of her paintings sold at a charity auction for A $ 22 @,@ 800 . <unk> <unk> \'s works are strongly coloured and <unk> in composition and regularly appear at commercial art <unk> in Australia . Her art appears to have survived the huge contraction of the primary art market in Australia since 2008 . There is no existing <unk> <unk> of <unk> <unk> \'s artworks , to date , no fakes have been cited . \n', '', ' = = Personal background = = \n', '', " <unk> <unk> <unk> is an <unk> @-@ speaking Indigenous Australian , born around 1945 or 1953 at the Santa Teresa Mission , near Alice Springs in Australia 's Northern Territory . \n", " When <unk> <unk> began painting for <unk> Gallery in central Australia , she indicated that her name was <unk> rather than <unk> , and that this was how she <unk> wished to be known ; however <unk> 's biography is the only source that has used that version of her name . \n", " After marrying Robin <unk> , brother of artist Gloria <unk> , <unk> <unk> moved to the region of <unk> , north @-@ east of Alice Springs , which is where she was living when she began painting around 1990 . They had seven children , one of whom , <unk> <unk> , went on to become an artist like his mother . By 2008 , <unk> <unk> 's husband had died , and <unk> was dividing her time between Alice Springs and <unk> Range , to its north @-@ east . \n", '', ' = = Professional background = = \n', '', " Contemporary Indigenous art of the western desert began in 1971 when Indigenous men at <unk> created murals and <unk> using western art materials , assisted by teacher Geoffrey <unk> . Their work , which used <unk> paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly after the introduction of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and ' 90s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the <unk> <unk> artists ' company , were men , and there was resistance among the <unk> men of central Australia to women also painting . However , many of the women wished to participate , and in the 1990s many of them began to paint . In the western desert communities such as <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and on the <unk> , people were beginning to create art works <unk> for exhibition and sale . \n", '', ' = = = Career = = = \n', '', " <unk> <unk> began painting about 1990 or 1992 as part of the contemporary Indigenous art movement that had begun at <unk> in the 1970s . By 1998 her work was being collected by both private and public institutions , such as Charles Sturt University , and in 2005 a work was purchased by the National Gallery of Victoria . Her career received a significant boost when her work was included in the National Gallery of Victoria 's 2006 Landmarks exhibition and its catalogue ; her painting was printed opposite that of <unk> Tommy Watson , who was by this time famous , particularly for his contribution to the design of a new building for the Musée du <unk> <unk> . <unk> 's paintings have been included at exhibitions in several private galleries in Melbourne and Hong Kong , as well as at the Australian embassy in Washington in 2001 . \n", " In 2006 a commissioned work by <unk> was exhibited at <unk> College at the University of New South Wales as part of a charity fundraising exhibition . It sold for A $ 22 @,@ 000 . As of the end of 2008 , the highest recorded auction price for an item of <unk> 's work was $ 22 @,@ 800 , set in May 2007 . An image based on a <unk> by <unk> , Bush <unk> , appears on the cover of a book on the visual perception of motion , Motion Vision . \n", ' Central Australian artists frequently paint particular " <unk> " , or stories , for which they have responsibility or rights . These stories are used to pass " important knowledge , cultural values and belief systems " from generation to generation . <unk> by <unk> portray two different groups of <unk> , rendered in two distinct styles . Bush plum dreaming represents a plant of the central Australian desert which is " a source of physical and spiritual sustenance , reminding [ the local Indigenous people ] of the <unk> of [ their ] country " . These paintings are undertaken with red , blue and orange dots that represent the fruit at different stages in its development . She also paints women ’ s ceremonies ( <unk> ) and <unk> , and these are created using rows of coloured dots and include representations of women \'s ceremonial iconography . \n', ' Journalist <unk> <unk> described <unk> as one of the " finest contemporary Aboriginal artists " . Art consultant Adrian Newstead has ranked her as amongst the country \'s top 200 Indigenous artists , noting that she has become " known for innovative works that create a sense of visual harmony through fine <unk> fields of <unk> applied <unk> " . Her style is described by Indigenous art writers <unk> and <unk> as an " interesting , modern interpretation of landscape " . \n', " <unk> 's work is held in a variety of public and private collections , including <unk> , the Charles Sturt University Collection , the Holmes a Court Collection , and the National Gallery of Victoria . \n", '', '', ' = Head VI = \n', '', ' Head VI is an oil @-@ on @-@ canvas painting by the Irish @-@ born English <unk> artist Francis <unk> , the last of six panels making up his " 1949 Head " series . It shows a bust view of a single figure , modeled on Diego <unk> \'s Portrait of Innocent X. <unk> applies forceful , expressive brush <unk> , and places the figure within a glass cage structure , behind curtain @-@ like <unk> . This gives the effect of a man trapped and <unk> by his surroundings , screaming into an <unk> void . \n', ' Head VI was the first of <unk> \'s paintings to reference <unk> , whose portrait of Pope Innocent X haunted him throughout his career and inspired his series of " screaming <unk> " , a loose series of which there are around 45 surviving individual works . Head VI contains many motifs that were to reappear in <unk> \'s work . The hanging object , which may be a light switch or curtain <unk> , can be found even in his late paintings . The <unk> cage is a motif that appears as late as his 1985 – 86 masterpiece , Study for a Self @-@ Portrait — <unk> . \n', ' Head VI was first exhibited in November 1949 at the Hanover Gallery in London , in a showing organised by one of the artist \'s early champions , Erica <unk> . At the time , <unk> was a highly controversial but respected artist , best known for his 1944 Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a <unk> , which made him the <unk> terrible of British art . Head VI drew a mixed reaction from art critics ; John Russell , later <unk> \'s biographer , at the time dismissed it as a cross between " an <unk> <unk> of its jaws and an <unk> in <unk> @-@ <unk> who has come to a bad end " . In 1989 Lawrence <unk> wrote that the " shock of the picture , when it was seen with a whole series of heads ... was indescribable . It was everything <unk> . The paradoxical appearance at once of pastiche and <unk> was indeed one of <unk> \'s most original <unk> . " Art critic and curator David Sylvester described it as a seminal piece from <unk> \'s unusually productive 1949 – 50 period , and one of <unk> \'s finest <unk> . \n', '', ' = = 1949 Head series = = \n', '', ' <unk> \'s output is characterised by sequences of images . He told Sylvester that his imagination was stimulated by sequences and that " images breed other images in me " . His series were not always planned or painted in sequence ; sometimes paintings are grouped for convenience but vary in execution and tone . The idea for the head series came after he returned <unk> , late in 1948 , from a stay in <unk> . In the previous three years he had been unable to find a voice ; the last surviving canvas from this period is his Painting ( 1946 ) . Although he continued to paint , he was a ruthless self critic , given to <unk> <unk> with <unk> , and no works survive from between 1947 and the winter of 1948 . <unk> Erica <unk> offered <unk> the opportunity of a solo show for the opening of her new Hanover Gallery . He agreed , but had nothing in reserve to hang . In following years , <unk> became perhaps the most important of <unk> \'s early champions ; she arranged this showing — his debut solo exhibition — publicised him widely and organised <unk> for international <unk> . \n', ' Already 40 years old , <unk> viewed the exhibition as his last chance and applied himself to the task with determination . Because he had destroyed all his out of the last three years , he had little choice but to present new works . He did not have a grand plan when he agreed to the show , but eventually found themes that interested him in his Head I of the previous year , and executed five progressively stronger variants in the final weeks before the November exhibition , completing the series barely in time for the opening . \n', " The paintings depict isolated figures enclosed in spaces that are <unk> , overwhelmingly <unk> , <unk> and eerie . Coming early in <unk> 's career , they are uneven in quality , but show a clear progression especially in how they <unk> and present ideas he was still clearly developing and coming to terms with . Head I ( actually begun in the winter of 1948 ) and Head II show <unk> pieces of flesh that broadly resemble human heads ; they have half @-@ open eyes and a <unk> , though it is positioned much higher than would be expected in a human . Heads III , IV and V show fully formed <unk> recognisable as men , and are characterised by a haunted atmosphere . These two broad ideas <unk> in Head VI , which is as <unk> tortured as the first two paintings , and as spectral as the middle three . In Head VI the figure has developed and is now shown wearing vestments , the first indication in <unk> 's work of the influence of <unk> , while the focus has become the open mouth and the study of the human scream . \n", ' <unk> said that chance played a significant role in his work , and that he often approached a canvas without having a clear idea of what might emerge . This was especially the case in the mid to late 1940s , a period when he was drinking heavily and spending most nights in <unk> <unk> and poker rooms . The following morning he would often approach his canvas " in a bad mood of drinking ... under tremendous <unk> and drink ; I sometimes hardly knew what I was doing . " He incorporated his appetite for chance into his work : an image often would <unk> mid @-@ way through into something quite different from what he had first intended . He actively sought out this freedom and felt it crucial to his progression as an artist . To him , lifestyle and art were intertwined ; he said that " perhaps the drink helped me to be a bit <unk> . " This is very evident in the 1949 series , which began as a rather <unk> study of a collapsed head , but evolved over the six surviving panels into a reworking of <unk> masterpieces , and arrived at an image that was to <unk> <unk> for the subsequent 20 years . \n', ' The series marks <unk> \'s first attempt at depicting lone figures in rooms . For him , the key aspect was that it appeared that the subject felt isolated , <unk> , and had abandoned the need to present an outward face . He believed that under these circumstances all <unk> falls away , and the social being becomes the sum of its <unk> , which <unk> attempted to convey by reducing the subject to its bare @-@ bones features : a mouth , ears , eyes , a jaw . According to Russell , " the view out front ceases to be the only one , and our person is suddenly <unk> , fragmented , and subject to strange <unk> . " Russell observed that while the depiction of figures in rooms is common through all eras of painting , the figures are always posed , and usually seemingly aware that they are being portrayed . This <unk> is abandoned in <unk> \'s series . \n', " Head I , completed late in 1948 , is considered more successful than Head II . Although it is well @-@ regarded critically , Head II is seen as something of a creative <unk> @-@ de @-@ sac , while Heads III , IV and V are usually considered as merely intermediate steps towards Head VI . It is exceptional in <unk> 's <unk> that works of their relative poor quality survive ; he was <unk> self @-@ critical and often <unk> or abandoned <unk> before they were completed . When pressed again by <unk> in 1953 to produce works for a New York show that she had been <unk> for a year , he was full of doubt and destroyed most of what he had been working on , including several other <unk> . \n", ' <unk> commissioned another showing to be held in 1950 , for which <unk> painted three large <unk> modelled on <unk> \'s portrait . The gallery advertised the show as " Francis <unk> : Three Studies from the Painting of Innocent X by <unk> " , but in the end <unk> was dissatisfied with the works and destroyed them before the show opened . \n', '', ' = = Description = = \n', '', ' The figure is clearly identifiable as a pope from his clothing . It seems trapped and isolated within the outlines of an abstract three @-@ dimensional glass cage . This framing device , described by Sylvester as a " space @-@ frame " , was to feature heavily throughout the artist \'s career . A <unk> hangs from the upper edge of the glass case , falling just in front of the pope \'s face and partially covering his eyes . It is too <unk> drawn to identify with certainty , but given the presence of similar objects in <unk> \'s later works , may be either the end of a hanging light switch or the <unk> of a curtain ; the hanging <unk> was to become a signature for the artist . Apart from its symbolic meaning , it has a <unk> function , framing the painting with a further set of vertical lines . Such an object reappears most prominently in the centre panel of his 1973 <unk> , May – June 1973 , where it is clearly a dangling light bulb . For <unk> , these elements were intended to make the figure <unk> in and out of sight for the viewer , alluding to the fact that bulbs can be on or off , <unk> open or closed . \n', ' The figure \'s mouth is opened wide as if screaming , an expression <unk> took from a still he kept of the nurse screaming in <unk> <unk> \'s Odessa Steps massacre sequence in his 1925 silent film Battleship <unk> . In 1984 , the broadcaster <unk> Bragg asked <unk> about the still , and observed that in his earlier career the artist seemed preoccupied with the <unk> of the human mouth . <unk> replied , " I had always thought that I would be able to make the mouth with all the beauty of a <unk> landscape though I never succeeded in doing so . " When Bragg asked why he thought he had failed , <unk> said , " It should be all much more colour , should have got more of the interior of the mouth , with all the colours of the interior of the mouth , but I didn \'t happen to get it . " His interest in the mouth was further stimulated by a medical textbook of <unk> oral cavities bought in a second @-@ hand <unk> , kept in his studio and to which he often referred to . \n', ' The glass cage might imply a vacuum that the figure \'s voice is unable to escape ; as if it is screaming in silence . <unk> later in life , <unk> said that he had " wanted to paint the scream more than the horror . I think , if I had really thought about what causes somebody to really scream , it would have made the scream ... more successful " . The work evokes memories of the Second World War . The glass enclosure of his 1949 Chicago Study for a Portrait is often seen as <unk> photographs of Adolf <unk> 1961 trial before a Jerusalem District Court , when he was held within a similar cage . <unk> strongly resisted literal comparisons though , and stated that he used the device so he could frame and " really see the image – for no other reason . I know it \'s been interpreted as being many other things . " Other critics saw similarities between the glass case and the radio <unk> of late 1930s broadcasters who warned against the impending <unk> . Denis Farr notes that <unk> was sympathetic to George Orwell and referred in interviews to <unk> " shouting voices ... and trembling hands ... convey [ ing ] the harsh atmosphere of an <unk> . " \n', '', ' = = Influences = = \n', '', ' The so @-@ called " space frame " had already been used by Alberto <unk> in the 1930s , and the two artists became friends in the 1960s . However <unk> had by 1949 used it only in <unk> contexts before <unk> \'s <unk> , and in turn influenced his use in " The Cage " of 1950 . A similar two dimensional construct is found in Henry Moore \'s works , notably his " <unk> for King and Queen " , constructed three years after <unk> \'s Head . It is difficult to <unk> how these artists influenced and informed each other . What is notable is that <unk> continued to use the motif , with intervals until the end of his life . Sylvester suggests his finest example is the 1970 Three Studies of the Male Back . \n', ' The full @-@ length golden curtain @-@ like folds painted in heavy brush <unk> are in part influenced by <unk> but also similar to <unk> \'s 1558 Portrait of Cardinal Filippo <unk> . <unk> <unk> the Old Master \'s device to isolate and distance the sitter from the viewer ; the black ground @-@ paint is visible through the folds , making the separation all the more affecting . <unk> had already used similar forms in his Chicago panel , and they were to become a feature of his most acclaimed 1950s works , especially in his " screaming <unk> " . He became fascinated with the veil or curtain as a motif in painting , and collected many reproductions of works by <unk> and <unk> in which it is employed . He had begun his career as an interior <unk> and designer of furniture and <unk> in the mid @-@ 1930s , and later said that he liked " rooms hung all round with just <unk> hung in even folds " . <unk> or <unk> appear in <unk> \'s earliest works , notably the 1949 Study from the Human Body , always in portraits and always in front of , rather than behind , the figure . \n', ' Head VI is closely modelled on <unk> \'s c . 1650 Portrait of Innocent X , today in the <unk> <unk> Gallery , Rome . <unk> cautiously avoided seeing the original , even when he spent three months in Rome in 1954 . Critics speculate he was afraid of being disappointed , or thought that an intimate knowledge of the painting would dull his imagination . Yet his fascination was all @-@ consuming and he reproduced variants of it <unk> for almost two decades ; an examination and homage described as " without parallel in the history of art " . <unk> \'s approach differs to <unk> \'s in a number of ways : both artists were expressive , yet <unk> \'s broad brush @-@ <unk> and freedom with paint contrast with <unk> \'s tight and controlled treatment . He <unk> <unk> \'s positioning of the pope to place him above the viewer \'s point of view , elevating and <unk> him . This was already a common technique in commercial , promotional photography but in <unk> \'s hands , <unk> argues , the angle places the pope on a kind of stage for the viewer to <unk> observe . \n', ' Although <unk> revered <unk> \'s portrait , he did not try and reproduce the earlier painting . In interviews , he said that he saw flaws in <unk> \'s work and that he viewed that social structure and order as , according to art historian <unk> <unk> , " obsolete and decayed " . <unk> \'s approach was to elevate his subject so he could knock him down again , thereby making a <unk> comment on the treatment of royalty in both old master and contemporary painting . Yet <unk> \'s influence is apparent in many aspects of the painting . The sitter \'s pose closely echoes the original , as does the violet and white colouring of his cope , which is built up through broad , thick , brush @-@ <unk> . The influence can be further seen in the gold @-@ coloured ornaments on the back of the seat that extend on both sides of the figure . Art historian <unk> <unk> describes the work as a mixture of <unk> and subversion that pays tribute to <unk> , while at the same time <unk> his painting . \n', ' Sylvester <unk> the influence of late works by <unk> in other aspects , especially in the deep and rich colouring , <unk> \'s portrayals of Philip IV , and agrees with identification of <unk> of Edgar <unk> as a source . He believes <unk> borrowed from <unk> the use of parallel heavy folds to create the illusion of what <unk> described as " <unk> " , as seen in the earlier artist \'s After the Bath , Woman drying herself . Sylvester makes a further direct link between the folds and the transparent veil in <unk> \'s Portrait of Cardinal Filippo <unk> . He believes the folds serve to " push the viewer back " , creating a distance from the subject , an effect he sees as similar to the separation between and orchestra and setting ; others view the folds as more closely resembling the bars of a prison . Sylvester describes them as an <unk> of background <unk> into stripes that are made to appear as if they pass through the sitter . In his " <unk> with Francis <unk> " series of books , he asked <unk> why he found the effect so poignant . The artist replied , " Well , it means that the sensation doesn \'t come straight out at you but <unk> slowly and gently through the gaps . " \n', ' When asked why he was compelled to revisit the <unk> so often , <unk> replied that he had nothing against <unk> per <unk> , but merely sought " an excuse to use these colours , and you can \'t give ordinary clothes that purple colour without getting into a sort of false <unk> manner . " <unk> sees Head VI as a reaction against <unk> , and a commentary on how the papacy is " obsolete and decayed " , with a pope resistant to both modernisation and <unk> . To him , the figure seems to " resist the <unk> of image and tries to halt the impending collapse of the established work order . He screams and <unk> , clutching at arms of his throne . " Sylvester notes that <unk> was impressed by Picasso \'s <unk> and handling of paint , especially in Picasso \'s 1930s works ; and suggests that the white <unk> around the pope \'s <unk> may be influenced by the 1913 Woman in a <unk> <unk> in an <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Critical reception = = \n', '', ' When <unk> undertook the series late in 1948 he was something of a two @-@ hit wonder . He had success in 1944 with Three Studies for Figures at the Base of a <unk> and to a lesser extent with Painting ( 1946 ) , both of which were highly regarded but viewed as <unk> . The exhibition was a success , and marked his critical breakthrough . Until then , he had been highly regarded but capable of only occasional <unk> . The full show established him in the minds of critics as , according to Michael <unk> , " more of a force to be <unk> with in the contemporary scene " . While some found his images <unk> and <unk> , they wrote about him all the same , sealing his reputation as the <unk> terrible of post @-@ war British art . The critic for The Observer wrote , " The recent paintings ... <unk> as they are , cannot be ignored . Technically they are superb , and the masterly handling of large areas of <unk> grey , flushed with a sudden pink or green , only makes me regret the more that the artist \'s gift should have been brought to subjects so esoteric " . \n', ' Most critics focused on Heads I and VI , remarking favourably on the progression between the two . While some found the inherent violence of the paintings <unk> , <unk> was a skilled publicist and turned the bad press into notoriety , and brought <unk> \'s work to national attention . <unk> notes that the exhibition showed <unk> no longer needed <unk> material to make an impact , and was now capable of creating an intense emotional response through more subtle means , and had found a way of presenting the human condition in the way he had sought , by presenting his sitter " in a <unk> setting , a cage or [ behind ] a parted <unk> ... the rest , the most essential , lay in the manipulation of the infinitely <unk> medium of oil paint " . After the showing <unk> gradually became " less the <unk> with an occasional image of <unk> <unk> and more a force to be <unk> with on the contemporary scene " . His reputation and the value of his panels rose dramatically , and after the showing he was sought after by European , American and African collectors and galleries , commanding prices as high as £ 400 for single works , unusual for a contemporary British artist of the time . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', " Head VI was first exhibited at the Hanover Gallery , London , in 1949 . It was acquired by the Arts Council 's <unk> Gallery in 1952 . The <unk> has loaned it out a number of times since , including for major <unk> at the Grand <unk> , Paris in 1971 , and the Hugh Lane Gallery , Dublin , in 2000 . \n", ' In May 1996 , the National Gallery took on loan <unk> \'s Innocent X portrait and hung it alongside four <unk> paintings ; Head VI , Pope I ( 1951 ) , Pope 1961 and Pope 1965 . <unk> believes that <unk> would have disapproved of such a showing with a work he considered one of the finest ever painted , but writes that two , including Head VI , " stood up to it , and even enhanced its authority as one of the most penetrating studies of human nature and human power " . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> was a movement in early 20th @-@ century Anglo @-@ American poetry that favored precision of imagery and clear , sharp language . \n', " <unk> has been described as the most influential movement in English poetry since the activity of the Pre @-@ <unk> . As a poetic style it gave <unk> its start in the early 20th century , and is considered to be the first organized <unk> literary movement in the English language . <unk> is sometimes viewed as ' a succession of creative moments ' rather than any continuous or sustained period of development . René <unk> remarked that ' It is more accurate to consider <unk> not as a doctrine , nor even as a poetic school , but as the association of a few poets who were for a certain time in agreement on a small number of important principles ' . \n", ' The <unk> rejected the sentiment and <unk> typical of much Romantic and Victorian poetry , in contrast to their contemporaries , the Georgian poets , who were generally content to work within that tradition . In contrast , <unk> called for a return to what were seen as more Classical values , such as <unk> of presentation and economy of language , as well as a willingness to experiment with non @-@ traditional verse forms . <unk> use free verse . \n', ' <unk> publications appearing between 1914 and 1917 featured works by many of the most prominent modernist figures , both in poetry and in other fields . The <unk> group was centered in London , with members from Great Britain , Ireland and the United States . <unk> unusually for the time , a number of women writers were major <unk> figures . \n', ' A characteristic feature of <unk> is its attempt to isolate a single image to reveal its essence . This feature mirrors contemporary developments in avant @-@ garde art , especially <unk> . Although <unk> <unk> objects through the use of what Ezra Pound called " luminous details " , Pound \'s <unk> Method of juxtaposing concrete instances to express an <unk> is similar to <unk> \'s manner of <unk> multiple perspectives into a single image . \n', '', ' = = Pre @-@ <unk> = = \n', '', " Well @-@ known poets of the <unk> era of the 1890s , such as Alfred Austin , Stephen Phillips , and William Watson , had been working very much in the shadow of Tennyson , producing weak imitations of the poetry of the Victorian era . They continued to work in this vein into the early years of the 20th century . As the new century opened , Austin was still the serving British Poet Laureate , a post which he held up to 1913 . In the century 's first decade , poetry still had a large audience ; volumes of verse published in that time included Thomas Hardy 's The <unk> , Christina <unk> 's posthumous <unk> Works , Ernest <unk> 's Poems , George Meredith 's Last Poems , Robert Service 's <unk> of a <unk> and John <unk> 's <unk> and Poems . Future Nobel Prize winner William Butler Yeats was <unk> much of his energy to the Abbey Theatre and writing for the stage , producing relatively little lyric poetry during this period . In 1907 , the Nobel Prize for Literature was awarded to <unk> Kipling . \n", ' The origins of <unk> are to be found in two poems , Autumn and A City Sunset by T. E. <unk> . These were published in January 1909 by the Poets \' Club in London in a booklet called For Christmas <unk> . <unk> was a student of mathematics and philosophy ; he had been involved in the setting up of the club in 1908 and was its first secretary . Around the end of 1908 , he presented his paper A <unk> on Modern Poetry at one of the club \'s meetings . Writing in A. R. <unk> \'s magazine The New Age , the poet and critic F. S. Flint ( a champion of free verse and modern French poetry ) was highly critical of the club and its publications . From the ensuing debate , <unk> and Flint became close friends . In 1909 , <unk> left the Poets \' Club and started meeting with Flint and other poets in a new group which <unk> referred to as the " <unk> Club " ; they met at the <unk> Tower restaurant in London \'s <unk> to discuss plans to reform contemporary poetry through free verse and the <unk> and <unk> and the removal of all unnecessary <unk> from poems . The interest in Japanese verse forms can be placed in a context of the late Victorian and <unk> revival of interest in <unk> and <unk> as witnessed in the 1890s vogue for William Anderson \'s Japanese prints donated to the British Museum , performances of <unk> plays in London , and the success of Gilbert and Sullivan \'s <unk> The <unk> ( 1885 ) . Direct literary models were available from a number of sources , including F. V. <unk> \'s 1866 <unk> <unk> is <unk> , or , <unk> by a Century of Poets , Being Japanese <unk> Odes , the first English @-@ language version of the <unk> <unk> , a 13th @-@ century anthology of 100 <unk> , the early 20th @-@ century critical writings and poems of <unk> Hartmann , and contemporary French @-@ language translations . \n', ' The American poet Ezra Pound was introduced to the group in April 1909 and found that their ideas were close to his own . In particular , Pound \'s studies of Romantic literature had led him to an admiration of the <unk> , direct expression that he detected in the writings of <unk> Daniel , Dante , and <unk> <unk> , amongst others . For example , in his 1911 – 12 series of essays I gather the limbs of Osiris , Pound writes of Daniel \'s line " <unk> de <unk> m <unk> <unk> " ( " it rests me to think of her " ) ( from the <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> \'l <unk> <unk> ) : " You cannot get statement simpler than that , or clearer , or less <unk> " . These criteria of <unk> , clarity and lack of rhetoric were to be amongst the defining qualities of <unk> poetry . Through his friendship with Laurence <unk> , Pound had already developed an interest in Japanese art by examining <unk> @-@ e prints at the British Museum , and he quickly became absorbed in the study of related Japanese verse forms . \n', " In an article in La France , 1915 , the French critic , <unk> de <unk> described the <unk> as descendants of the French <unk> and in a 1928 letter to the French critic and translator René <unk> , Pound was keen to emphasise another ancestry for <unk> , pointing out that <unk> was indebted to a <unk> tradition , linking back via William Butler Yeats , Arthur Symons and the <unk> ' Club generation of British poets to <unk> and the <unk> source was amplified further in <unk> 's study published in 1929 , in which he concluded however great the divergence of technique and language ' between the image of the <unk> and the ' symbol ' of the <unk> there is a difference only of precision ' . In 1915 , Pound edited the poetry of another 1890s poet , Lionel Johnson for the publisher <unk> Mathews . In his introduction , he wrote \n", '', ' = = Early publications and statements of intent = = \n', '', ' In 1911 , Pound introduced two other poets to the <unk> Tower group : his former fiancée Hilda <unk> ( who had started signing her work <unk> ) and her future husband Richard <unk> . These two were interested in exploring Greek poetic models , especially <unk> , an interest that Pound shared . The compression of expression that they achieved by following the Greek example complemented the proto @-@ <unk> interest in Japanese poetry , and , in 1912 , during a meeting with them in the British Museum tea room , Pound told <unk> and <unk> that they were <unk> and even <unk> the signature <unk> <unk> to some poems they were discussing . \n', " When Harriet Monroe started her Poetry magazine in 1911 , she had asked Pound to act as foreign editor . In October 1912 , he submitted <unk> three poems each by <unk> and <unk> under the <unk> <unk> , ( published in the November 1912 second issue <unk> ) with a note which described <unk> as ' one of the ' <unk> ' . This note , along with the <unk> note ( ' The Complete Works of T. S. <unk> ' ) in Pound 's book ( also published in Autumn 1912 ) entitled <unk> are considered to be first appearances of the word <unk> ( later <unk> to ' <unk> ' ) in print . \n", ' <unk> \'s poems , <unk> , To a Greek <unk> , and <unk> <unk> <unk> , were in the November issue of Poetry , and <unk> \' s , Hermes of the Ways , <unk> , and <unk> , appeared in the January 1913 issue ; <unk> as a movement was launched . Poetry \'s April issue published what came to be seen as " <unk> \'s enabling text " , the <unk> @-@ like poem of Ezra Pound entitled " In a Station of the Metro " : \n', ' The <unk> of these faces in the crowd ; \n', ' <unk> on a wet , black <unk> . \n', " The March 1913 issue of Poetry contained A Few Don <unk> by an <unk> and the essay entitled <unk> both written by Pound , with the latter being attributed to Flint . The latter contained this <unk> statement of the group 's position : \n", ' Direct treatment of the " thing " , whether <unk> or objective . \n', ' To use absolutely no word that does not contribute to the presentation . \n', ' As regarding rhythm : to compose in sequence of the musical phrase , not in sequence of the <unk> . \n', ' Pound \'s note opened with a definition of an image as " that which presents an intellectual and emotional complex in an instant of time " . Pound goes on to state , " It is better to present one Image in a lifetime than to produce <unk> works " . His list of " don <unk> " reinforced his three statements in " <unk> " , while warning that they should not be considered as <unk> but as the " result of long contemplation " . Taken together , these two texts comprised the <unk> programme for a return to what they saw as the best poetic practice of the past . <unk> Flint commented " we have never claimed to have invented the moon . We do not pretend that our ideas are original . " \n', ' The 1916 preface to Some <unk> Poets comments " <unk> does not merely mean the presentation of pictures . <unk> refers to the manner of presentation , not to the subject . " \n', '', ' = = Des <unk> = = \n', '', " <unk> to promote the work of the <unk> , and particularly of <unk> and <unk> , Pound decided to publish an anthology under the title Des <unk> . It was first published in Alfred <unk> 's little magazine The <unk> and was later published in 1914 by Alfred and Charles <unk> in New York and by Harold <unk> at the Poetry <unk> in London . It became one of the most important and influential English @-@ language collections of modernist verse . Included in the thirty @-@ seven poems were ten poems by <unk> , seven by <unk> , and six by Pound . The book also included work by <unk> Flint , <unk> <unk> , Amy Lowell , William Carlos Williams , James Joyce , Ford <unk> Ford , Allen <unk> and John <unk> <unk> was also another included in the important 1963 anthology by William Pratt The <unk> Poem Modern Poetry in miniature . \n", " Pound 's editorial choices were based on what he saw as the degree of sympathy that these writers displayed with <unk> precepts , rather than active participation in a group as such . Williams , who was based in the United States , had not participated in any of the discussions of the <unk> Tower group . However , he and Pound had long been corresponding on the question of the renewal of poetry along similar lines . Ford was included at least partly because of his strong influence on Pound , as the younger poet made the transition from his earlier , Pre @-@ <unk> @-@ influenced style towards a harder , more modern way of writing . The inclusion of a poem by Joyce , I Hear an Army , which was sent to Pound by <unk> Yeats , took on a wider importance in the history of literary <unk> , as the subsequent correspondence between the two led to the serial publication , at Pound 's behest , of A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man in The <unk> . Joyce 's poem is not written in free verse , but in rhyming <unk> . However , it strongly reflects Pound 's interest in poems written to be sung to music , such as those by the <unk> and <unk> <unk> . The book met with little popular or critical success , at least partly because it had no introduction or commentary to explain what the poets were attempting to do , and a number of copies were returned to the publisher . \n", '', ' = = Some <unk> Poets = = \n', '', ' The following year , Pound and Flint fell out over their different interpretations of the history and goals of the group arising from an article on the history of <unk> written by Flint and published in The <unk> in May 1915 . Flint was at pains to emphasise the contribution of the <unk> Tower poets , especially Edward <unk> . Pound , who believed that the " Hellenic hardness " that he saw as the distinguishing quality of the poems of <unk> and <unk> was likely to be diluted by the " <unk> " of <unk> , was to play no further direct role in the history of the <unk> . He went on to co @-@ found the <unk> with his friend , the painter and writer <unk> Lewis . \n', ' Around this time , the American <unk> Amy Lowell moved to London , determined to promote her own work and that of the other <unk> poets . Lowell was a wealthy <unk> from Boston whose brother Abbott Lawrence Lowell was President of Harvard University from 1909 @-@ 1933 . She loved Keats and cigars . She was also an enthusiastic champion of literary experiment who was willing to use her money to publish the group . Lowell was determined to change the method of selection from Pound \'s <unk> editorial attitude to a more democratic manner . This new editorial policy was stated in the <unk> to the first anthology to appear under her leadership : " In this new book we have followed a slightly different arrangement to that of our former Anthology . Instead of an arbitrary selection by an editor , each poet has been permitted to represent himself by the work he considers his best , the only <unk> being that it should not yet have appeared in book form . " The outcome was a series of <unk> anthologies under the title Some <unk> Poets . The first of these appeared in 1915 , planned and assembled mainly by <unk> and <unk> . Two further issues , both edited by Lowell , were published in 1916 and 1917 . These three volumes featured most of the original poets , ( also including <unk> poetry by the American poet John Gould Fletcher ) , with the exception of Pound , who had tried to persuade her to drop the <unk> name from her publications and who <unk> dubbed this phase of <unk> " Amy @-@ <unk> . " \n', ' Lowell persuaded D. H. Lawrence to contribute poems to the 1915 and 1916 volumes , making him the only writer to publish as both a Georgian poet and an <unk> . <unk> Moore also became associated with the group during this period . However , with World War I as a backdrop , the times were not easy for avant @-@ garde literary movements ( <unk> , for example , spent much of the war at the front ) , and the 1917 anthology effectively marked the end of the <unk> as a movement . \n', '', ' = = <unk> after <unk> = = \n', '', ' In 1929 , Walter <unk> <unk> suggested that <unk> should produce a new <unk> anthology . <unk> , by now a successful novelist , took up the suggestion and enlisted the help of Ford and <unk> The result was the <unk> Anthology 1930 , edited by <unk> and including all the contributors to the four earlier anthologies with the exception of Lowell , who had died , <unk> , who had disappeared , and Pound , who declined . The appearance of this anthology initiated a critical discussion of the place of the <unk> in the history of 20th @-@ century poetry . \n', ' Of the poets who were published in the various <unk> anthologies , Joyce , Lawrence and <unk> are now primarily remembered and read as novelists . <unk> Moore , who was at most a fringe member of the group , carved out a unique poetic style of her own that retained an <unk> concern with compression of language . William Carlos Williams developed his poetic along distinctly American lines with his variable foot and a diction he claimed was taken " from the mouths of Polish mothers " . Both Pound and <unk> turned to writing long poems , but retained much of the hard edge to their language as an <unk> legacy . Most of the other members of the group are largely forgotten outside the context of the history of <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Legacy = = \n', '', ' Despite the movement \'s short life , <unk> would deeply influence the course of modernist poetry in English . Richard <unk> , in his 1941 memoir , writes : " I think the poems of Ezra Pound , <unk> , Lawrence , and Ford <unk> Ford will continue to be read . And to a considerable extent T. S. Eliot and his followers have carried on their operations from positions won by the <unk> . " \n', ' On the other hand , Wallace Stevens found shortcomings in the <unk> approach : " Not all objects are equal . The vice of <unk> was that it did not recognize this . " With its demand for hardness , clarity and precision and its insistence on fidelity to appearances coupled with its rejection of irrelevant <unk> emotions <unk> had later effects that are <unk> in T. S. Eliot \'s \' <unk> \' and \' Morning at the Window \' and in D. H. Lawrence \'s animal and flower pieces . The rejection of conventional verse forms in the nineteen @-@ twenties owed much to the <unk> <unk> of the Georgian Poetry style . \n', ' The influence of <unk> can be seen clearly in the work of the <unk> poets , who came to prominence in the 1930s under the auspices of Pound and Williams . The <unk> worked mainly in free verse . <unk> linking <unk> \'s principles with <unk> \'s , Louis <unk> insisted , in his introduction to the 1931 <unk> issue of Poetry , on writing " which is the detail , not <unk> , of seeing , of thinking with the things as they exist , and of directing them along a line of melody . " <unk> was a major influence on the Language poets , who carried the <unk> focus on formal concerns to a high level of development . Basil <unk> , another <unk> poet , was a key figure in the early development of the British Poetry Revival , a loose movement that also absorbed the influence of the San Francisco Renaissance poets . \n', ' <unk> influenced a number of poetry circles and <unk> the <unk> Free verse became a discipline and acquired status as a legitimate poetic form . In the 1950s , especially , with the Beat generation , the Black Mountain poets , and others associated with the San Francisco Renaissance . In his seminal 1950 essay <unk> Verse , Charles <unk> , the theorist of the Black Mountain group , wrote " <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> A <unk> <unk> " ; his <unk> derived from and supplemented the <unk> . \n', " Among the Beats , Gary <unk> and Allen Ginsberg in particular were influenced by the <unk> emphasis on Chinese and Japanese poetry . William Carlos Williams was another who had a strong effect on the Beat poets , encouraging poets like Lew Welch and writing an introduction for the book publication of Ginsberg 's <unk> ( 1955 ) . \n", '', '', ' = Operation Eastern Exit = \n', '', ' Operation Eastern Exit was the <unk> given to the military evacuation of the United States embassy in Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia , in January 1991 . In late December 1990 , violence quickly enveloped the city as armed militants began <unk> with government soldiers . On 1 January 1991 , the US Ambassador to Somalia , James <unk> Bishop , contacted the Department of State requesting an evacuation of the embassy , which was approved the following day . United States Central Command began planning and <unk> forces that evening . The initial plan was to evacuate with a military transport plane through the Mogadishu International Airport , but this was later abandoned . A helicopter evacuation via the USS Guam and USS <unk> was the remaining option . \n', ' On the morning of 5 January , a 60 @-@ person Marine and Navy <unk> security detail was dispatched from Guam aboard two CH @-@ <unk> Super <unk> helicopters to secure the embassy and prepare for the main evacuation . The two helicopters returned to Guam with the first 61 <unk> . Throughout the day , foreign diplomats and civilians sought refuge at the embassy . Four waves of five CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight helicopters each evacuated the embassy compound shortly after midnight on 6 January . The <unk> were transported to Muscat , Oman , where they disembarked on 11 January . In total , 281 diplomats and civilians from 30 countries were evacuated , including 12 heads of missions ( eight ambassadors and four <unk> d <unk> ) . \n', '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', ' In the late 1980s , there was increasing rebellion against the rule of Somali President Siad Barre , a military dictator who maintained tight control of power and had a record of human rights abuses . By 1990 , what began as civil disobedience evolved into a civil war , with several militias organized to overthrow the central government . \n', " In July 1989 , the embassy moved to a new , 80 @-@ acre ( 32 ha ) compound , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the previous embassy and James K. Bishop was appointed as the United States ' ambassador to Somalia . Ambassador Bishop had significant experience in crisis management at US embassies . In 1967 , he was at the US Embassy in Beirut , Lebanon when the Six @-@ Day War erupted . About 3 @,@ 600 Americans were evacuated in 33 hours ; Bishop was one of 26 diplomats and soldiers that remained in the city . As deputy assistant secretary of state for Africa from 1981 – 87 , Bishop chaired several task forces for <unk> and gained experience in the State Department 's operations center as <unk> were carried out during several coups d <unk> . During his previous assignment as Ambassador to <unk> ( 1987 – 90 ) , Bishop was overseeing the voluntary evacuation of embassy staff and civilians as a civil war in <unk> spread , when he left in March 1990 . Soon after returning to Washington to prepare for his new appointment to Somalia , he was appointed to a <unk> to deal with the crisis in <unk> , which included a gradual evacuation of American civilians and a rapid closure of the embassy in August . \n", ' On 1 August , before leaving the US to take up his post in Mogadishu , Ambassador Bishop visited United States Central Command — the military command for the Middle East and northeast Africa — where he spent most of the day with its commander , Gen. Norman <unk> . Ambassador Bishop , aware of the ongoing <unk> , believed " the odds were better than even that we would have to leave Mogadishu under less than favorable circumstances . " Ambassador Bishop understood from his past experiences in Beirut and <unk> the importance of being prepared to deal with <unk> and spent the afternoon working with military experts to review the embassy \'s <unk> and <unk> ( E & E ) plan until he was " satisfied ... that [ Central Command ] realized that it might have to conduct an evacuation from Mogadishu and was prepared to do that . " In its analysis of Operation Eastern Exit , the Center for Naval Analyses cited the Ambassador Bishop \'s previous experience and " clear understanding of his role " in the operation as one of the reasons Operation Eastern Exit went so well . \n', " <unk> after Ambassador Bishop 's visit to Central Command , Iraq invaded Kuwait . In 1979 , the US negotiated access to an airport and port in both Mogadishu and <unk> ; because of limited access the US had to locations in the Persian Gulf area , maintaining this access was a main interest for the Mogadishu embassy to pursue as the US mobilized to intervene in Kuwait . \n", ' An increasing level of criminal violence prompted Ambassador Bishop to request the voluntary evacuation of dependents ( e.g. children and spouses of staff ) and non @-@ essential staff in early December , although fighting between the government and the United Somali Congress ( a rebel militia ) remained no less than about 100 miles ( 160 km ) away . The voluntary evacuation later became a mandatory evacuation . By 19 December , the number of official US personnel in the city was reduced from 147 to 37 ; around the same time , fighting between the government and rebels came within about 40 miles ( 64 km ) of Mogadishu . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> of the Barre government = = = \n', '', ' On 30 December , violence escalated " an order of magnitude " as militants entered Mogadishu , which was quickly enveloped by a general state of lawlessness . On 30 – 31 December , diplomats , including many stationed in offices elsewhere in the city , were collected and housed in the embassy compound , except two volunteers who remained in the embassy \'s K @-@ 7 residential apartments located across <unk> Road from the embassy . The volunteers in the K @-@ 7 building would be needed as look @-@ outs for the embassy compound \'s main gate . On the morning of 31 December , the defense <unk> was nearly killed when his vehicle was <unk> with bullets and that evening , a soldier at a roadblock shot the <unk> of a vehicle carrying another defense official . Attempts by the US and other nations \' diplomats , in particular the Italian embassy , to negotiate a ceasefire for foreigners to leave were unsuccessful . <unk> Road became a " shooting gallery , " preventing those in safe @-@ <unk> outside the embassy from reaching it . On New Year \'s Day , the first American civilians began to seek refuge at the embassy . \n', ' Ambassador Bishop requested an evacuation of the American community on 1 January , indicating that the evacuation could be with the planned Italian , French , or German evacuation efforts , but preferred an evacuation by the US military . The State Department authorized the evacuation on 2 January and on that day , Ambassador Bishop specifically requested an evacuation by the US military , thereby initiating Operation Eastern Exit . Ambassador Bishop had spent a considerable amount of time discussing <unk> plans for evacuation with other diplomatic posts . Ultimately , ten heads of missions — eight ambassadors and two <unk> d <unk> — along with their staff sought refuge in the US embassy compound and were evacuated . \n', '', ' = = Plans , <unk> , and escalating violence = = \n', '', ' Ambassador Bishop had visited Central Command in August 1990 , where he worked with military experts to update the embassy \'s E & E plan . The first notice that an evacuation of the Mogadishu embassy would be needed came on the morning of 1 January , when the top naval commander at Central Command sent a message to his naval operations staff : " Better have <unk> crowd take a look at a <unk> <unk> of Mogadishu ! time / distance to get there from <unk> <unk> area . " Following the ambassador \'s 2 January evacuation request , the commander of Central Command ordered Air Force aircraft to the region , the movement of amphibious ships to Mogadishu , and requested United States Special Operations Command to prepare for a noncombatant evacuation operation . \n', ' The initial plan was to evacuate via Mogadishu International Airport . Soon after the evacuation request , the United States Air Force deployed C @-@ 130 transport planes and an AC @-@ 130 , for gunfire support , to <unk> , Kenya , awaiting clearances to enter Somalia and the ability to safely transfer <unk> from the embassy to the airport . However , the US and other foreign embassies were unable to contact anyone within the government to obtain clearances . It also became apparent that the rebels had an ineffective command @-@ and @-@ control structure , making it impossible to negotiate any ceasefire or guarantee of safe passage . Likewise , government troops faced a command @-@ and @-@ control problem ; reports indicated that army units were separating along clan lines , in some cases soldiers shot officers of a different clan when given orders they disagreed with . Thus , it became clear that safe passage to the airport would not be possible . Several other nations also had aircraft mobilized to reach Mogadishu , but faced the same problems of landing and transit of <unk> to the airport . \n', " On 4 January , several incidents , including a couple exchanges of gunfire , suggested that the embassy 's security detail was insufficient to hold off armed <unk> until the USS Guam and USS <unk> arrived with their helicopters and soldiers , at that time scheduled to arrive on 7 January . The embassy had just six Marine guards , whose job was limited to protecting the <unk> . Ambassador Bishop made an urgent request to Washington for two platoons of soldiers to parachute into the embassy to defend it until the ships arrived . The request was denied , but the Ambassador was told that an advance element from the vessels would reach the embassy the following morning . \n", ' USS Guam and USS <unk> began transit from the coast of Oman towards Mogadishu at 22 : 30 ( 23 : 30 Oman time ) on 2 January . The commander of <unk> Group Two had initially proposed a seven @-@ ship <unk> Task Group , composed of vessels anchored at <unk> Island ( off Oman ) and Dubai and including four amphibious ships so that the full range of amphibious capabilities would be available for the operation . However , intervention in Kuwait seemed imminent and the commander of naval forces at Central Command did not want to divert that many ships from the Persian Gulf , thus the decision to send two of the closest ships . Although the two vessels were selected by mid @-@ afternoon on 2 January , the transfer of some personnel from Dubai to <unk> caused a delay of eight to ten hours . Guam and <unk> carried forces from the 4th Marine Expeditionary Brigade , including a detachment of CH @-@ <unk> Super <unk> helicopters — the largest helicopters operated by the US military — and two squadrons of CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight helicopters . \n', " Planning began in earnest as the ships got underway , with a combined command center on Guam . On the morning of 3 January , the task force 's command questioned why they were not given the option of an amphibious landing and requested a tank landing ship be added to the task force ; the request was denied . A warrant officer who had previously served as a Marine Security Guard at the Mogadishu embassy during the mid @-@ 1980s was found . Despite Ambassador Bishop 's planning with Central Command , the task force was provided outdated information . The former <unk> told planners that a new embassy had been planned and was under construction several years prior . In fact , the new embassy was located further inland and , after receiving updated information , task force commanders determined that a beach landing , requiring troops to fight their way across the city , was too risky . Initial plans had the ships launch their helicopters at 01 : 00 on 7 January . However , in response to indications from Ambassador Bishop that conditions in Mogadishu were deteriorating , planners considered 1 @,@ 050 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 940 km ; 1 @,@ 210 mi ) and , later , 890 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 650 km ; 1 @,@ 020 mi ) flights with the CH @-@ <unk> while the ships were still located in the northern Arabian Sea . The situation in Mogadishu stabilized somewhat and the mission was delayed until 5 January . \n", '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' On the evening of 4 January , the final execute order was issued for a 02 : 45 launch of two CH @-@ <unk> Super <unk> to arrive at the embassy at dawn . The 60 soldiers selected for the security detail were issued weapons and ammunition . Two Marine Corps <unk> @-@ 130 <unk> tankers were mobilized closer to the operation , from Bahrain to Oman , to refuel the helicopters en route to Mogadishu and the two helicopters transferred from <unk> to Guam . \n', '', ' = = = Security detail and first <unk> = = = \n', '', " Two CH @-@ <unk> Super <unk> carrying a 60 @-@ man security detail — 51 Marines and nine Navy <unk> — departed Guam at 02 : 47 , <unk> nautical miles ( <unk> km ; <unk> mi ) from the embassy , and were expected to arrive at 06 : 20 . They performed two aerial <unk> . During the first <unk> , a pipe burst on one of the helicopters , <unk> soldiers in fuel and nearly forcing a return to the Guam ; problems with the helicopters ' navigation system also complicated the <unk> rendezvous . The helicopters arrived in Mogadishu at dawn , crossing the coast just south of the harbor at 25 – 50 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 – 15 @.@ 2 m ) in altitude on a route that was planned to avoid areas of more intense violence reported in the northern parts of the city . On their arrival in Mogadishu , the crew of the helicopters were using an outdated 1969 map , which showed the embassy in an isolated area . Furthermore , they had been told the embassy could be discerned by its white stucco perimeter wall and golf course . The embassy was , in fact , surrounded by new development and the crew saw white stucco walls around many buildings in the city . The helicopters were flying too low to spot a <unk> light which was placed on the embassy 's water tower ( the highest point within the embassy compound ) and the golf course in the embassy compound had a black , oil @-@ coated surface — not the familiar green grass that the helicopter crew would <unk> breaking radio silence ( their only direct communication with the embassy was <unk> ) to contact the embassy , they were able to <unk> it and land at 07 : 10 . As they arrived , a group of about 100 to 150 <unk> were attempting to enter the embassy compound via <unk> on the wall , but scattered as the helicopters arrived . \n", " The security detail moved to establish a perimeter around the embassy compound and the Air Force 's AC @-@ 130 arrived to provide overhead support . Ambassador Bishop gave the security detail clear instructions on the rules of engagement : they could only use deadly force if people came over the embassy compound 's walls with obvious hostile intent . He also identified three zones of defense , stating a preference to retreat to the third zone before the use of deadly force : \n", ' the entire embassy compound \n', ' the Chancery , Joint Administrative Office ( <unk> ) building , Marine House , and the helicopter landing zone ( <unk> ) \n', ' the <unk> and <unk> buildings ( the two " <unk> " buildings where the <unk> were held ) \n', ' Ambassador Bishop clearly explained his rationale to the security detail , which was to avoid any impression that they were intervening in the violence in Mogadishu . He feared that the embassy would be targeted by organized attacks if any group involved in the clashes got the impression that the US was intervening in the conflict . To this effect , he requested the Voice of America and BBC broadcast announcements that the forces were present only to evacuate the embassy and would not interfere in the conflict . The Marines who had been <unk> in fuel during the <unk> were able to take a shower and wash their clothes . \n', ' After an hour on the ground , the helicopters left with the first 61 <unk> , including all American civilians and four heads of mission . <unk> were provided blankets on one of the flights to remain warm . <unk> with the only in @-@ flight <unk> on the return nearly prevented <unk> , which would have forced the helicopters to divert to the Somali desert and await a rescue . At 9 : 40 , the helicopters arrived on Guam and <unk> the <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Embassy during the day = = = \n', '', " No threats came upon the embassy during the day , although <unk> of armed <unk> frequently drove by the embassy along <unk> Road . Only one incident seemed to directly target the embassy . A sniper and a <unk> were positioned on the embassy 's water tower ( the highest structure in the compound ) and came under fire ; they were ordered to not return fire and soon thereafter ordered to leave their position on the water tower . \n", ' The Office of Military Cooperation , just one and a half blocks from the embassy , required evacuation . Despite its proximity to the embassy , an armed convoy was needed to evacuate persons trapped there by the unrest . A convoy of vehicles with several Marines and <unk> left the embassy at 8 : 47 and returned ten minutes later with 22 persons from the <unk> ( four Americans , a <unk> , and 17 <unk> ) . This was the only <unk> outside the embassy by the security detail . Throughout the day , foreign diplomats contacted the embassy <unk> to be evacuated ; the US welcomed these requests , but required all of them to find their own transportation to the embassy . \n', ' A Somali officer who had a previous relationship with the embassy , Major Siad , agreed to travel to rescue the German <unk> d <unk> and British ambassador ( junior staff from the British embassy had previously come to the US embassy ) . The Soviet Union was unable to land a plane in Mogadishu the previous day and the Soviet ambassador asked Ambassador Bishop if he and his staff could be rescued ; Ambassador Bishop , a tennis partner of his Soviet counterpart , agreed but only if they found their own way to the embassy . Seeing the helicopters on the morning of 5 January , they realized the Americans would not remain in the city much longer . At the request of Ambassador Bishop , Major Siad agreed to transport the Soviets , but only if he was paid enough ; the US embassy paid Major Siad , who returned with the Soviet ambassador and 38 of his staff . The brother of President Barre , who was also a Major General and Chief of Police , showed up at the embassy in the afternoon with 25 members of his family requesting to be evacuated , but was turned away after a vocal conversation with the ambassador . \n', ' The operation did not include soldiers to handle the evacuation control center ( <unk> ) , which was set up in the <unk> . A 44 @-@ person force consisting primarily of soldiers to handle the <unk> was planned for insertion with the CH @-@ <unk> Super <unk> after they had returned to the Guam . However , this was cancelled over objections from the commander of the security detail . The deficit was partially handled by embassy staff who assisted a few soldiers from the security detail . The <unk> were grouped into 15 @-@ person " sticks " to be loaded onto the helicopters and were limited to one piece of luggage apiece . Some attempted to bring more , resulting in problems coordinating their evacuation . Furthermore , many <unk> had pets they wanted to bring , which were not allowed . Most pets were killed by their owners ; some were given poison . Meanwhile , the soldiers were allowed to consume anything they wanted from the embassy \'s <unk> , such as candy , <unk> , and souvenirs ( most had been stationed on ships for several months ) . They were also allowed use or take anything they needed from the embassy ; the <unk> filled several bags with medical supplies to return to the ship . \n', ' As evening approached , work began to prepare the <unk> for the main evacuation . The area was used as a parking lot and several vehicles were left without keys by staff that had already been evacuated . Some cars had to be broken into to be moved . Chemical lights were placed in the <unk> in a NATO " Y " pattern . The entire mission would be conducted with night vision <unk> , which required all lights in the embassy compound to be turned off . \n', '', ' = = = Main evacuation = = = \n', '', ' The main evacuation occurred in the early morning hours of 6 January and consisted of four waves of five CH @-@ 46 helicopters . The timing of this phase was determined by range of the CH @-@ 46 Sea Knight , which lack aerial <unk> capability ; the ships were about 350 – 380 nautical miles ( 650 – 700 km ; 400 – 440 mi ) away during this phase . An AC @-@ 130 was sent from Saudi Arabia to provide gunfire support during the evacuation and two <unk> @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopters were on standby to provide gunfire support , but were not deployed . \n', " The first wave departed Guam at 23 : 43 . As the second wave landed , Major Siad arrived at the embassy gate accompanied by two <unk> of soldiers and held a grenade in one hand and a radio in the other . His request to speak with the ambassador was granted . Major Siad demanded that the evacuation cease immediately because the Somali government had not granted the US permission to carry out such a military operation . He claimed that he would radio soldiers to shoot down the helicopters if the operation continued . The second and third waves were able to depart without incident as the ambassador negotiated with the Major , who finally agreed to settle the matter for several thousand dollars in cash and keys to the ambassador 's armored car . Ambassador Bishop remained engaged in conversation with the Major until he reached the helicopter landing zone to depart with the final wave to prevent the Major from <unk> on the deal . The final wave departed the embassy at 1 : 49 and landed on Guam at 2 : 23 ; twenty minutes later , Ambassador Bishop declared the evacuation complete . \n", '', ' = = = Aftermath at the embassy = = = \n', '', " Armed <unk> were observed entering the embassy compound as the final wave departed . The doors of the <unk> — the main building of the embassy — were reportedly blown open by <unk> within two hours of the embassy 's evacuation . Somali employees of the embassy — known as foreign service <unk> ( <unk> ) — could not be evacuated . Ambassador Bishop tried unsuccessfully to have these employees <unk> to safer parts of Somalia . Many of the <unk> had sought refuge in the embassy with their families and about 30 were hired as guards and protected the embassy throughout the ordeal . Local banks had been closed for some time and the embassy was unable to pay the <unk> . The Ambassador left the <unk> with keys to the <unk> and warehouse on the embassy compound and they were permitted to take anything they needed . \n", '', ' = = = Return to Oman = = = \n', '', ' A total of 281 <unk> were taken from the embassy , including 12 heads of missions ( eight ambassadors and four <unk> d <unk> ) and 61 Americans ( including Ambassador Bishop and 36 embassy staff ) . The heads of mission were the ambassadors of the United States , Kenya , Nigeria , Soviet Union , Sudan , Turkey , United Arab Emirates , and United Kingdom and the <unk> of the embassies of Germany , Kuwait , Oman , and <unk> . \n', " Rather than disembark in nearby <unk> , as originally thought by the <unk> , the ships were ordered back to Oman — a five @-@ day journey . The sailors and marines made way for the <unk> to share living quarters . When the <unk> of Guam asked crew to sign up as guides for the <unk> while aboard the vessel , two hundred signed up within an hour , and some of the sailors even dressed up as <unk> to ease the ordeal for children . At the request of the ambassadors , a formal session with the ships ' senior officers was held to express their thanks . On 11 January , the <unk> were <unk> at Muscat , Oman . That afternoon , the American <unk> were flown to Frankfurt , Germany , from where they continued home . \n", '', '', ' = 2010 <unk> Shield = \n', '', " The 2010 <unk> Shield was the 57th <unk> Shield tournament , the premier baseball competition in Australia , and was held from 6 November 2009 to 7 February 2010 . It was hailed as the precursor to the new Australian Baseball League that will start in the place of the <unk> Shield in late 2010 to early 2011 . The Victoria <unk> defeated South Australia two games to nil in the championship series to win the tournament ; this was the 22nd time the <unk> Shield had been awarded to a Victorian team . The competition was sponsored by <unk> 's <unk> . \n", ' At the conclusion of the regular season , the Victoria <unk> finished in first place with a 17 – 7 record , earning home @-@ field advantage for the three @-@ game championship series . South Australia hosted the three @-@ game semi @-@ final series against the New South Wales <unk> . Both teams finished with a 14 – 10 record . The Perth Heat ( 12 – 12 ) and Queensland <unk> ( 3 – 21 ) both failed to qualify for the finals . \n', '', ' = = Overview = = \n', '', " In June 2009 , it was announced that the rights to the <unk> Shield had been sold to a new Australian Baseball League ( <unk> ) , with ownership split between Major League Baseball 's 75 percent share and the 25 percent share owned by the Australian Baseball Federation . The 2010 tournament was considered preparation for the inaugural <unk> season starting in 2010 – 11 . It varied from the 2009 <unk> Shield by expanding the season to include ten rounds . Since an uneven number ( five ) teams were involved , four teams paired off for each round and played a three @-@ game series , while the remaining team took a bye . During the season , each team had two bye rounds and played two rounds against each other team , one at home and one away . In total , the schedule allowed for 24 regular @-@ season games per team before a postseason similar to the 2009 edition : the first @-@ place team directly qualified for the championship series and played against the winner of a playoff series between the second- and third @-@ place teams . \n", ' During the regular season , games were played on a Friday night and a <unk> on Saturday ; in each <unk> one of the two games was shortened to seven innings . The exception to this was when Perth played their home games ; they played on a Thursday night instead of a <unk> on Saturday . Each postseason series was scheduled for a Friday , Saturday and Sunday . \n', '', ' = = Teams = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', " The 2010 series allowed each team to make use of a 19 @-@ man active roster . <unk> were made in two cases that allowed teams ' active <unk> to expand to 21 players , both times for the same reason . Two games during the season had to be postponed because of poor weather . Both games involved teams meeting for the first time during the season ; make @-@ up games were scheduled at the start of the return series between the teams , and this resulted in two four @-@ game series . In both cases , the teams had a 19 @-@ man roster for the make @-@ up game , and an expanded 21 @-@ man roster for the originally scheduled series . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', " The 2010 <unk> Shield was contested between five teams from around Australia . In previous years , many of the teams had played their home games at multiple venues . This season each team held their home games at only one venue . There was one scheduled exception to this at the start of the season : the New South Wales <unk> ' final home series against the Perth Heat was held at Gilchrist Oval , whereas all of their other home games were held at <unk> Baseball Stadium . \n", ' As a result of poor attendance at <unk> Baseball Park , game one of the fifth @-@ round series between New South Wales and the Victoria <unk> was moved to La <unk> University , Melbourne . Although the <unk> games had attracted crowds of no more than 500 , the moved game had an attendance of 2 @,@ 200 . Though no further regular season games were moved , the finals series hosted by the <unk> was held at La <unk> University as well . \n', ' The venues are as follows : \n', '', ' = = Regular season = = \n', '', ' † — A game postponed from Round 7 , held in Round 8 , was played with Victoria <unk> as the away team and Queensland <unk> as the home team , despite being played at <unk> Baseball Park , <unk> , Victoria . \n', ' <unk> — A game postponed from Round 3 , held in Round 9 , was played with South Australia as the away team and Victoria <unk> as the home team , despite being played at Norwood Oval , Adelaide , South Australia . \n', ' The Queensland <unk> were the first team to be eliminated from contention for the finals , after being swept four games to nil by the Victoria <unk> in round 8 . The following round saw South Australia clinch a position in the finals , despite finishing the round in second position . It was not until the final round that the last two spots in the finals were decided : the <unk> clinched top spot by sweeping the Perth Heat , which combined with the New South Wales <unk> sweep of the <unk> eliminated Perth from contention and secured the last finals spot for the <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Statistical leaders = = = \n', '', '', ' = = Finals series = = \n', '', ' The 2010 <unk> Shield made use of the same finals structure as had been used in the 2009 season . The top three teams at the conclusion of the ten rounds of regular @-@ season games qualified . The second- and third @-@ place teams faced in each other in a best @-@ of @-@ three series hosted by the second @-@ place team . The winner of that series then faced the first @-@ place team for a best @-@ of @-@ three series . South Australia hosted the New South Wales <unk> at Norwood Oval , Adelaide , while the Victoria <unk> hosted the championship series at La <unk> University , Melbourne . In the finals , the home team and away team alternated during each of the series . As a result , South Australia was officially the away team for game two of its series against New South Wales , as was Victoria in the championship series . \n', " After defeating the <unk> two games to one in the semi @-@ final series , South Australia progressed to the championship series against the <unk> . There they were defeated two games to nil . After game two of the championship series , Victoria 's Matthew <unk> was named both <unk> Shield Final Series MVP and Pitcher of the Year . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> @-@ final series = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Championship series = = = \n', '', '', ' = = Awards = = \n', '', " At the conclusion of the finals series , the winner of two awards were announced . Matthew <unk> won both the Pitcher of the Year award and the Finals Series MVP award . At the Baseball Australia Diamond Awards , held on 6 March at the Hotel Grand Chancellor , Adelaide , Wayne <unk> was announced as the 35th winner of the Helms Award ; the <unk> Shield 's Most Valuable Player award . <unk> was the first pitcher to win since 1986 . Runners @-@ up by two votes were Paul <unk> and Michael Collins . \n", '', '', ' = <unk> ( Ricardo <unk> album ) = \n', '', ' <unk> is the thirteenth Spanish @-@ language studio album by <unk> singer @-@ songwriter Ricardo <unk> , released on 23 September 2011 . Recorded in the United States and Mexico , it was produced by <unk> with Dan Warner , Lee Levin and Puerto <unk> singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres . The album — the first independent release by <unk> after he was signed by Sony Music in 1993 and Warner Music in 2008 — was issued by his own label , <unk> . \n', ' <unk> and written in a year , the record marks <unk> and Torres \' fourth collaboration . For <unk> , <unk> returns to his trademark sound after his stylistic departure for <unk> <unk> ( 2010 ) . While producing the latter , he had used fewer instruments to <unk> his sound , having introduced what had been called a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " in his music . <unk> has been compared to his earlier recordings , <unk> ( 1994 ) and Animal <unk> ( 1993 ) . \n', " <unk> became <unk> 's fourth number @-@ one album on the Billboard Top Latin Albums where it debuted for the week ending 22 October 2011 . For thirteen non @-@ consecutive weeks it topped the Latin Pop Albums chart , and reached number one on the Mexican Albums Chart . It is his fifth consecutive album to chart on the Billboard 200 ( reaching number sixty @-@ five ) , and his fourth album to chart in Spain ( peaking at number sixty @-@ eight ) . Within one week after its release <unk> was certified gold in Chile , the United States and Mexico and certified platinum in Venezuela and Argentina . \n", ' Five singles have been released from the album . The lead single , " El Amor " , became a commercial success in several Latin American countries and was number one on the Billboard Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs charts . It was followed by " <unk> Tú " ( featuring <unk> <unk> ) , which reached number one on the Latin Pop Songs , number two on the Latin Songs charts and topped several other national charts . " Mi <unk> Se Me <unk> <unk> <unk> " was released in May 2012 ; " Te <unk> " in July 2012 , and " Si Tu No <unk> " in November 2012 . To promote <unk> , <unk> embarked on his <unk> World Tour . \n', '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', ' In 2010 , <unk> wanted to change his musical style ; after experimenting with using as few instruments as possible , he obtained a sound similar to an a <unk> performance ( <unk> his sound ) and introduced what he called a " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " to his music . This was heard on his twelfth studio album , <unk> <unk> . <unk> produced the album with Dan Warner , who has worked with <unk> , <unk> Dion and Christina Aguilera . When promoting the album <unk> said , " [ songs ] are like women ; they get things up and are so concerned about this that they forget that the less clothes , more beauty . The songs are often overwhelmed by ourselves , because we <unk> them with arrangements looking to <unk> their qualities and we end up hiding them " . <unk> <unk> became the first album since <unk> which <unk> recorded without Torres . \n', ' Weeks before the release of <unk> , <unk> issued a letter raising the issue of his past relationships with recording companies . He revealed the circumstances of his first contract : " a producer , friend of mine , told them [ the record label ] that if they did not sign me in , they won \'t sign two artists he had [ at that time ] " . <unk> further explained that he received the " minimum royalty percentage " from his most successful albums . <unk> is <unk> \'s first independent release through his own label : <unk> , a company he created to <unk> his career . The company is presided by <unk> and several friends ( including photographer @-@ director Ricardo Calderón , Universal Music <unk> executive <unk> <unk> and BMG \'s Miriam <unk> ) , and is based in Miami and Mexico City . <unk> commented that his independence represented compromise more than freedom , stating that " Inside the word \' Independent \' , even when it sounds like extreme freedom , there \'s a big amount of compromise and the responsibility of being able to <unk> , in the best way possible , such independence " . Billboard notes that , although other groups have released independent albums following contracts with major labels , <unk> is the most important Latin pop artist to do so . Although the album is marketed within the new label , distribution was handled by Warner Music . \n', '', ' = = Production and recording = = \n', '', ' <unk> marked <unk> \'s fourth collaboration with Torres . The latter was a composer and producer , also receiving background @-@ vocal credit . The musicians first worked together in 2005 , when <unk> released his tenth studio album ( <unk> ) . He stated that he first " tested " Torres by sending him the " <unk> and <unk> tracks " on the album : " <unk> A <unk> Solo " and " <unk> " . Torres then " went all out on the first demo , hiring a full band that included a string orchestra " . In <unk> <unk> <unk> ( 2007 ) , Torres produced the singles " <unk> " and " <unk> " and provided background vocals on the remastered versions of <unk> \'s past hits . In <unk> <unk> ( 2008 ) , Torres produced several tracks ; one was the lead single " <unk> <unk> " , considered <unk> \'s " biggest hit in years " by Jason <unk> of Allmusic . \n', ' The album was composed over a one @-@ year period . Most of its production was handled by three producers familiar with <unk> \'s work : Dan Warner , Lee Levin and Dan <unk> . Tommy Torres also produced three tracks : the lead single " El Amor " , second single " <unk> Tú " and " Hay <unk> " . Victor <unk> produced two songs , ( " <unk> " and the piano version of " Mi <unk> Se Me <unk> <unk> <unk> " ) and Julio <unk> aided in the production of " <unk> " . <unk> wrote all the songs except " El Amor " ( which was co @-@ written with Torres ) . The album was recorded and produced in several cities in the United States and Mexico . <unk> was mixed at the Blue <unk> in Nashville , Tennessee , and mastered by Tom Coyne and <unk> Merrill at Sterling Sound in New York City . With Torres \' return to producing <unk> regained the classic , trademark sound which Torres helped develop since 2005 . \n', '', ' = = Composition = = \n', '', ' <unk> opens with " Lo Que <unk> <unk> <unk> Mal " , a Latin pop song and the only track composed by Dan Warner instead of <unk> ( who wrote the lyrics ) . " El Amor " was motivated by <unk> \'s desire to examine " those big , dark events within love that nobody talks about " ; he continued , " [ the ] dark sides of love are extremely fundamental to understand its great value . " <unk> added , " So many good things <unk> love has been shown that somebody had to turn it around and tell the bad ones " . In a February 2012 interview , <unk> stated that " El Amor " was the " most <unk> " song he had released to date , explaining that their choice of the song was a " contradiction " because it was not " the song which could better represent the entire album " . He described it as " very strong " and " a bit dark " . The single marked <unk> \'s return to his signature , mainstream sound after the Cuban music influenced <unk> <unk> \'s lead single " <unk> " , a mixture of salsa and merengue which failed to make an impact in the United States . \n', ' The album includes " <unk> Tú " , a duet with <unk> singer <unk> <unk> . Its instrumentation consists of piano , violin , guitars , drums and other percussion . Although <unk> stated that he " had the possibilities to record this song with very well known people " he expressed his happiness with <unk> , revealing that " the possibilities of doing it with her , for me , are a celebration " . He described <unk> as " incredibly talented " , a " <unk> " and a " fantastic human being " . <unk> named " <unk> Tú " as one of the most important songs on the album . " Mi <unk> Se Me <unk> <unk> <unk> " took two years to complete and <unk> dedicated it to his mother , <unk> <unk> . He stated that he wrote it " as a gift for my mom on Mother \'s Day " and that he thought " the idea of including it on the album was very good " . As with his single " Señora De Las <unk> <unk> " ( on 1994 \'s <unk> ) , at first he never thought to include the song on an album . " <unk> " evokes " the image of some friends " <unk> had at college ; he asserted that he " appears constantly there because sometimes we transform ourselves into a contradiction of all those things we fought in those moments . It \'s the history of a student leader that becomes a president " . <unk> dedicated the album to his father , who died in 2011 . \n', '', ' = = Release and promotion = = \n', '', ' <unk> was first digitally released in some South American countries on 23 September 2011 as a special edition , dubbed the <unk> Sur Edition . This version included a different mix of " <unk> " . On 30 September , the digital download for the standard edition of the album was released in several Latin American and European countries . On 4 October , the album was officially released as a digital download and compact disc in most of these same markets as well as North America ; an iTunes edition was released as a digital download on the iTunes music store . This version included an album @-@ only video , entitled " <unk> " . In Germany , the album was first available on the <unk> label on 4 October and on 11 October through Warner Music . In Canada and Spain , the compact @-@ disc version of the album was available on 25 October . \n', ' <unk> appeared on a television special in 2011 to promote <unk> . The special featured guest appearances by <unk> <unk> , Ricky <unk> ( of the Mexican band <unk> ) and <unk> la del <unk> . Broadcast by <unk> , the program showcased the fourteen songs on <unk> . <unk> said that he was " happy to do things for Ricardo [ <unk> ] " , elaborating that they met each other " some time ago " and it was " a very special situation " . The show was later <unk> on 5 November by Canal de las <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Singles = = \n', '', ' The first single from <unk> is " El Amor " , released on 23 August 2011 . In the United States it reached number one on the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart ( <unk> \'s fourth number one on that chart , following " <unk> " , " <unk> " and " El <unk> " ) and number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs chart . It was also a hit in Latin America , reaching number one in Argentina , Mexico , Colombia , Venezuela , Chile , Costa Rica , Panama and Guatemala . The music video for " El Amor " , filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , was released on 8 September 2011 . It was directed by Ricardo Calderón ( who also directed <unk> \'s music video for " <unk> <unk> " ) and filmed in Mexico City . The second single from the album is " <unk> Tú " , a duet with <unk> singer <unk> <unk> . The music video for the song was shot in Guatemala ( around the tropical areas of Antigua Guatemala , <unk> Dulce , the <unk> lake , <unk> <unk> and the <unk> ruins ) and directed by Argentine director Joaquín <unk> . <unk> commented that " this video <unk> the battle on the couple when someone starts to talk \' is the beginning of the end \' " . " <unk> Tú " reached number two on the Billboard Top Latin Songs and number one on the Latin Pop Songs charts . \n', ' " Mi <unk> Se Me <unk> <unk> <unk> " was released as the third single . <unk> wrote the song for his mother , <unk> <unk> . The music video for the song , released in April 2012 , was filmed at Universal Studios in Los Angeles . It features <unk> and his son , Ricardo <unk> Jr . , and was directed by Robert García . The song was used by American telecommunications corporation AT & T for a <unk> <unk> 900 <unk> commercial featuring <unk> and was released in music stores in May 2012 . The fourth single from the album , " Te <unk> " , was released in July 2012 . The music video for the song was filmed during <unk> \'s concerts at <unk> Stadium in Buenos Aires , Argentina during his <unk> World Tour . It marks <unk> \'s first music video taken from a live performance . The song reached number ten in Mexico and number one on both the Billboard Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs chart . " Si Tu No <unk> " was released in November 2012 as the set \'s fifth and final single , and was intended to promote the re @-@ release of the album . The song , which music video was similar to that of " Te <unk> " , managed to peak at number 14 in Mexico . \n', '', ' = = Tour = = \n', '', ' Beginning on 27 January 2012 in <unk> , Mexico , <unk> embarked on a world tour to promote the album . The <unk> World Tour was announced in December 2011 , and visited the Americas . The show consisted of four theatrical sets on a revolving stage ; <unk> performed on each in turn , as it <unk> to each song . Fellow <unk> singer @-@ songwriter <unk> <unk> appeared in several performances , joining <unk> for " <unk> Tú " . The tour was praised by critics and fans . Natalie Torres of <unk> a <unk> reported , " <unk> knows how to handle his \' girls \' , with a mix of attitudes from a \' rough \' male and seductive lyrics " . \n', ' Jon Pareles of The New York Times commented that " <unk> is one of Latin pop ’ s finest <unk> : <unk> , <unk> , sometimes <unk> , sometimes melancholy and especially fond of the play of opposites " . He added , " unlike some of his fellow Latin pop stars , Mr. <unk> is no saccharine lover boy " . The tour broke records for ticket sales , commercial gross and attendance . In Buenos Aires it was the most popular show at <unk> Stadium , with a total attendance of more than 160 @,@ 000 for four consecutive sold @-@ out concerts . In Guatemala City <unk> was the first artist with two consecutive sold @-@ out concerts at <unk> Flores Stadium , with a combined attendance of more than 50 @,@ 000 . As of October 2012 , the tour has been performed for close to one million people in more than eight countries . \n', '', ' = = Commercial performance = = \n', '', " <unk> debuted at the top of the Billboard Top Latin Albums for the week ending 22 October 2011 , and remained at that position the following week . It was the third album by <unk> to remain for more than a week at number one , after <unk> <unk> ( 2000 ) and <unk> <unk> . <unk> became his fourth chart @-@ <unk> , following <unk> <unk> ( 2010 ) . For its third week it fell to number two , replaced by <unk> & <unk> 's <unk> . The album also debuted at number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart for the week ending 22 October , becoming <unk> 's fifth album to do so . It remained at number one the following week ; for its third week , it was replaced by <unk> . The album reached number one again for the week ending 12 November , and later for the week ending 11 February 2012 . For its second run it remained three weeks at the top before being replaced by <unk> 's Drama y Luz for a week ; for its third run at number one , it remained at the top spot for five weeks . For the week ending 2 June 2012 , <unk> returned again to number one . \n", " For the week it debuted atop both the Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts , <unk> also appeared as number 65 on the Billboard 200 . It is <unk> 's fifth consecutive album to chart on that list ( following <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> ) , although it has only charted higher than <unk> . In Mexico , <unk> debuted at number one for the week ending 9 October 2011 . The following week it fell to number two , replaced at the top by <unk> <unk> ' <unk> Que <unk> . For its third week , the album fell to number three . In Argentina , <unk> debuted at number one for the week ending 9 October 2011 ; it remained at the top position for a single week , dropping to number five the following week . The album also charted on Spain , reaching number 76 . The following week it fell off the chart but later re @-@ entered , reaching its peak at number 68 . <unk> is <unk> 's fourth album to chart in Spain , following <unk> , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . On the 2011 year @-@ end charts , <unk> was the 50th best @-@ selling album on the Latin Albums chart and the 15th best @-@ seller on the Latin Pop Albums chart . In Mexico , it was the 19th best @-@ selling album of 2011 . \n", ' <unk> was certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of <unk> and <unk> <unk> in recognition of 40 @,@ 000 copies sold . It was also certified gold and platinum by the Mexican Association of <unk> of <unk> and <unk> for 90 @,@ 000 copies shipped . In the United States , <unk> was certified Latin platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for 100 @,@ 000 copies shipped . In Venezuela , the album was certified double platinum for more than 40 @,@ 000 copies sold . It was certified gold in Chile for 5 @,@ 000 copies shipped , and in Colombia for 10 @,@ 000 copies sold . As of November 2012 , <unk> has sold 75 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . \n', '', ' = = Critical reaction and awards = = \n', '', ' David Jeffries of Allmusic gave the album a <unk> positive review , citing <unk> \'s return to his more mainstream style after the " stripped @-@ down acoustic effort " <unk> <unk> . He compared ( as did <unk> and other critics ) the production values and musical style of <unk> with past albums Animal <unk> and <unk> . Finally , he stated that " Returning fans will <unk> in this combination of freedom and growth , and appreciate the return of producer Tommy Torres , the man who has been behind the boards for quite a few of <unk> \'s most popular releases " ( referring to Torres \' absence from the production of <unk> <unk> ) . \n', ' A contributor to the Colombian website <unk> commented that " listening to <unk> is a labyrinth to go through , each song is a huge path that seems to have no end , because it involves imagination , it invites you to dream , to charm , to <unk> . But neither leaves behind the problematic requirements of love , its <unk> , <unk> and concerns , as well as its bad times in this joke that \'s life " . <unk> was nominated at the <unk> <unk> of 2012 for the " Lo <unk> <unk> ( I Play It All ) " award . On 25 September 2012 , the album received two nominations at the 13th Annual Latin Grammy Awards : Album of the Year and Best Singer @-@ songwriter album . On 3 December 2012 , <unk> received a nomination for " Pop Album of the Year " at the 2013 <unk> Lo <unk> awards . It also received a nomination for Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album at the Grammy Awards of 2013 . <unk> does not win the latter award since 2005 with <unk> in a shared win with Mexican singer <unk> <unk> . In February 2013 , <unk> received a nomination for " Latin Pop Album of the Year " at the Billboard Latin Music Awards of 2013 . \n', '', ' = = Track listing = = \n', '', ' All songs written and composed by Ricardo <unk> , except where noted . \n', '', ' = = Personnel = = \n', '', ' Credits are taken from <unk> liner notes . \n', '', ' = = Chart performance = = \n', '', '', ' = = Certifications = = \n', '', '', ' = = Release history = = \n', '', '', '', ' = 2003 Pacific typhoon season = \n', '', ' The 2003 Pacific typhoon season was a slightly below average <unk> period of tropical cyclogenesis exhibiting the development of 31 tropical depressions , of which 21 became named storms ; of those , 14 became <unk> . Though every month with the exception of February and March featured tropical activity , most storms developed from May through October . During the season , tropical cyclones affected the Philippines , Japan , China , the Korean Peninsula , Indochina , and various islands in the western Pacific . \n', ' The season ran year @-@ round , with the first storm , <unk> , developing west of the Marshall Islands on January 15 . In April , Typhoon <unk> became one of the longest @-@ lasting Pacific <unk> in history and attained <unk> records for its unusually early impacts . Typhoon Imbudo in July caused several deaths and extensive damage across the Philippines and China . In September , Typhoon <unk> became one of the costliest <unk> in recorded history after striking South Korea ; <unk> was also the most intense tropical cyclone of the season with a minimum barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) . In late November , Typhoon <unk> devastated areas of Yap State in the <unk> States of <unk> . The season closed with the <unk> of a tropical depression east of the Philippines on December 27 . \n', ' The scope of this article is limited to the Pacific Ocean , north of the equator and west of the International Date Line . Storms that form east of the date line and north of the equator are called hurricanes ; see 2003 Pacific hurricane season . Tropical Storms formed in the entire west Pacific basin are assigned a name by the Tokyo Typhoon Center . Tropical depressions in this basin monitored by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) have the " W " <unk> added to their number . Tropical depressions that enter or form in the Philippine area of responsibility are assigned a name by the Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration or PAGASA . This can often result in the same storm having two names . \n', '', ' = = <unk> <unk> = = \n', '', ' On March 5 , 2003 , <unk> from the University College London at the Tropical Storm Risk ( <unk> ) <unk> issued an extended range forecast for the typhoon season , noting the likelihood of near average tropical cyclone activity as a result of projected neutral sea surface temperatures . The forecast indicated the potential for 26 @.@ 2 tropical storms , compared to the 10 – and 30 @-@ year average of 27 @.@ 8 and 26 @.@ 3 storms , respectively . The following month , the group raised their forecast for tropical storms to 26 @.@ 7 , indicating a slightly above average season . Over next two months , however , fluctuations in sea surface temperatures , particularly those in the Central Pacific , caused the group to revise their predictions downward and indicated the probability for a slightly below average typhoon season in their June forecast . A rise in sea surface temperatures in the following months prompted the forecasting group to once again raise their <unk> to indicate a near @-@ average season in their final August forecast update , which predicted 27 tropical storms . The group was very accurate in their <unk> , with their April and August <unk> being the most accurate . \n', ' Similarly , <unk> working with the City University of Hong Kong issued a seasonal projection on April 24 , 2003 , indicating the likelihood of a normal or below normal season with 29 total tropical cyclones , 26 tropical storms , and 16 <unk> . As with the <unk> , the group primarily based their forecast numbers on the prevailing status of the El Niño @-@ Southern <unk> . The City University of Hong Kong revised their <unk> on June 24 , 2003 , indicating a slight increase of total tropical cyclones to 30 . The group was also accurate in their <unk> for the entirety of the Northwest Pacific , though their specialized <unk> for the South China Sea were substantially off . \n', " During the year , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) issued advisories on tropical cyclones west of the International Date Line to the Malay Peninsula , and north of the equator ; this was due to the agency 's status as the official Regional <unk> Meteorological Center , as designated by the World Meteorological Organization in 1989 . The JMA issued <unk> and analyses four times a day , beginning at 0000 UTC and continuing every six hours . The JMA issued <unk> based on a <unk> tropical cyclone forecast model . The agency estimated 10 minute sustained winds and barometric pressure based on the Dvorak technique and numerical weather prediction . The JTWC also issued warnings on storms within the basin , operating from Pearl Harbor in Hawaii to represent the interests of the United States Armed Forces in the Indian and Pacific <unk> . \n", '', ' = = Season summary = = \n', '', ' Throughout the season , sea surface temperatures within the western equatorial Pacific were above normal , including those in the South China Sea . Areas of convection persisted year @-@ round in the lower latitudes , particularly around the Philippines . <unk> divergence was also prevalent in the same regions , resulting in enhanced tropical cyclogenesis east of the Philippines in 2003 ; the mean region of development of tropical systems during the year was more southwest than the 1971 – 2000 30 @-@ year average . In 2003 , the JMA monitored 21 tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm intensity ; of those , 14 reached typhoon intensity . Though the number of tropical storms was below average , the ratio between tropical storms and <unk> was 66 % greater than normal . The Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) monitored three additional cyclones of at least tropical storm intensity that were not monitored by the JMA . \n', ' The season began with the formation of Tropical Storm <unk> on January 15 . After its <unk> five days later , no tropical cyclones of at least tropical storm intensity developed over the next two months . This period of inactivity ended with the formation of Typhoon <unk> in mid @-@ April ; <unk> was one of the longest lived Pacific storms on record and was the first typhoon with 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of at least 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) in April since Typhoon Isa in 1997 . Tropical activity was enhanced from May to June , and during this period the JMA monitored four tropical storms , while the PAGASA monitored a fifth storm off the eastern Philippines . Three of the four tropical storms monitored by the JMA approached or hit Japan , including Typhoon <unk> , which brought heavy rainfall and wind across the <unk> Islands and the Korean Peninsula . \n', ' Tropical activity once again declined towards the second half of June and first half of July . The second half of July , however , featured the development of <unk> Imbudo and <unk> , which both tracked westward across the Philippines before striking areas near <unk> and other regions of southeastern China . Imbudo caused the deaths of 78 people and US $ <unk> million in damage . August was a highly active month for tropical cyclogenesis , with a total of six tropical storms monitored by the JMA , JTWC , and PAGASA . This included <unk> <unk> and <unk> , which also struck southeastern China . Typhoon <unk> earlier in the month made landfall in Japan , resulting in 17 deaths . \n', ' <unk> was somewhat below average in September , with only one tropical cyclone making landfall , <unk> . However , <unk> was the strongest tropical cyclone of the season and was the costliest with roughly US $ 4 @.@ 8 billion in damage , mostly in South Korea . Tropical cyclogenesis and activity continued to decline after August , with October featuring only three tropical storms . However , two , <unk> and <unk> , reached typhoon intensity ; both stayed away from land . November featured less storms but was <unk> average , with two <unk> developing . The second typhoon , <unk> , devastated portions of Yap State , resulting in approximately $ 1 @.@ 7 million in damage . In December , the JTWC and PAGASA monitored a sole tropical system east of the Philippines , though the JMA did not monitor or classify any tropical cyclones during the month . \n', '', ' = = Storms = = \n', '', ' In storm information below , wind @-@ speed advisories differ from the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to the JMA as the JTWC uses the United States criteria of 1 @-@ minute mean to designate maximum sustained winds , while the JMA uses the 10 @-@ minute mean wind criteria to designate tropical cyclone maximum sustained winds . This difference generally results in JTWC maximum winds appearing higher than the maximum winds described by the JMA for the same cyclone . \n', '', ' = = = Tropical Storm <unk> = = = \n', '', ' On January 11 , the JTWC began monitoring the disturbance that would eventually develop into <unk> near the International Date Line . As the system tracked westward , it gradually moved into a more favorable environment for tropical cyclogenesis . On January 14 , surface observations indicated that the low @-@ pressure area had developed a closed , low @-@ level circulation center indicative of a tropical cyclone , satellite imagery remained inconclusive . Nonetheless , the JMA classified the pressure area as a tropical depression west of the Marshall Islands at 0600 UTC on January 15 . The JTWC would follow suit by classifying the storm as such at 1800 UTC later that day . At the time , the depression was tracking west @-@ northwest under the influence of a subtropical ridge to the north . Over the next day the system <unk> in convective activity before resuming its previous track and accelerating . At 0000 UTC on January 17 , the JTWC upgraded the system to tropical storm intensity , though the storm remained <unk> as the JMA continued to classify it as a tropical depression . \n', ' Throughout January 17 the tropical storm would again <unk> in strength , resulting in a brief <unk> by the JTWC to tropical depression intensity . However , an increase in deep convection resulted in its <unk> as a tropical storm at 1800 UTC that day , followed by the JMA upgrading the system to tropical storm intensity at 1200 UTC on January 18 . As such , the storm received the name <unk> . At roughly the same time , the tropical cyclone began to stall east of the Mariana Islands and curve sharply northeastward . Whilst the JTWC indicated that <unk> peaked in strength late on January 18 with 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 60 km / h ( 37 mph ) , the JMA considered the system to have maintained the same intensity throughout its stint as a tropical storm . <unk> by the same nearby subtropical ridge , <unk> would continue to track towards the northeast into a less favorable tropical cyclone environment . The JMA downgraded <unk> to tropical depression at 1200 UTC on January 20 before the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as its low @-@ level circulation center <unk> from the primary mass of convection due to strong wind shear . At 0000 UTC , both the JTWC and JMA discontinued the monitoring of <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' <unk> developed from a broad area of disturbed weather as a tropical depression on April 9 well removed from any <unk> . Shortly after development , <unk> quickly intensified in its early stages , and was upgraded to a tropical storm just two days after cyclogenesis . <unk> slowed afterwards , though the storm attained typhoon intensity on April 14 . <unk> continued and late on April 15 , <unk> reached its peak intensity with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Following peak intensity , <unk> would begin to track northwest and <unk> in strength , <unk> an additional two times in intensity . On April 21 , the typhoon was downgraded to tropical storm intensity and began to track <unk> for several days east of Taiwan . However , on April 24 , <unk> would resume a northward track and begin to weaken , and on April 24 was downgraded to tropical depression strength as it made landfall on <unk> . Following landfall , <unk> transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on April 25 , which persisted until crossing the International Dateline towards the end of April 2003 . \n', ' Shortly after developing , <unk> caused two fatalities in <unk> in addition to minor agricultural and infrastructural damage ; similar effects were felt in Guam . Several days later , the typhoon prompted cyclone warnings and other <unk> measures in the Philippines after <unk> indicated the potential for strong winds and rain . However , ultimately any effects in the archipelago associated with <unk> remained minimal . The typhoon also prompted warning products in Taiwan , making it the first April typhoon since 1978 to cause such a feat . Unlike in the Philippines , however , <unk> would bring significant rainfall to Taiwan . Effects from the typhoon were most significant in Japan , particularly in the <unk> Islands . Strong winds , rain , and waves caused US $ 230 @,@ 000 ( ¥ 27 @.@ 8 million ) in agricultural damage on <unk> Island . One person was killed due to injuries resulting from the waves . In <unk> , heavy rainfall , peaking at 196 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 in ) in <unk> Prefecture , was reported . Overall , despite its distance away from land and weak intensity at the time of its sole landfall , <unk> resulted in three fatalities . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon Chan @-@ <unk> = = = \n', '', " <unk> on May 18 , the JTWC began to monitor an area of persistent disturbed weather associated with a broad low @-@ pressure area southwest of <unk> . Within highly <unk> conditions , the disturbance quickly organized and became classified as a tropical depression at 0000 UTC the following day . In its initial stages , the depression tracked slowly <unk> . However , a <unk> trough forced a weakness in a nearby ridge , allowing for the storm to take a more streamlined , northward path . At 1200 UTC on May 20 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Chan @-@ <unk> . Following the system 's naming , Chan @-@ <unk> temporarily meandered towards the northwest before resuming its northeasterly track . The next day , the storm began to develop an eye ; this was reflected with an upgrade by the JMA to typhoon status at 0600 UTC on May 23 . <unk> intensification followed , and at 1800 UTC that day Chan @-@ <unk> reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 940 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) . \n", " Following peak intensity , Chan @-@ <unk> began to intake dry air beginning on May 25 . At roughly the same time , the typhoon began to weaken and accelerate towards the northeast . Conditions continued to <unk> as the storm moved further north , and as the cyclone passed east of <unk> , it was downgraded to tropical storm classification . By this time , Chan @-@ <unk> had lost much of its convection due to wind shear . Early on May 27 , Chan @-@ <unk> had fully transitioned into an extratropical cyclone , and these remnants continued to track towards the northeast . These extratropical remnants dissipated south of the <unk> Islands the following day . Early in the typhoon 's existence , Chan @-@ <unk> posed a potential threat to Guam , but remained well east of the island . However , after passing to the northeast , winds from the typhoon fanned volcanic ash from the recently <unk> <unk> volcano towards the island , prompting <unk> measures in Guam . <unk> were reported on the island , forcing the cancellation of several flights . As a tropical storm , Chan @-@ <unk> caused some damage to homes and crops on <unk> , mostly due to heavy rains brought forth by the storm . Offshore , a 1 @,@ <unk> ton fishing vessel , the <unk> <unk> , sank during the storm . The ship was valued at $ 16 million . \n", '', ' = = = Severe Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' Tropical Storm <unk> developed as a tropical depression just off the western coast of Luzon on May 25 . The disturbance quickly intensified to reach tropical storm intensity a few hours after cyclogenesis . However , intensification leveled off as <unk> executed a small clockwise loop before a subsequent landfall on Luzon on May 27 . Due to land interaction the storm temporarily weakened and <unk> before reforming in the Philippine Sea . Afterwards <unk> began <unk> and reached its peak intensity on May 29 with maximum sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 980 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 94 inHg ) . Following its peak the tropical storm began to deteriorate and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on May 30 ; these extratropical remnants continued to track northward through Japan before dissipating in the Sea of <unk> on June 4 . \n', ' The erratic and slow movement of <unk> off the western Philippines was the catalyst for extreme rainfall and flooding , killing 41 persons in the archipelago . Precipitation peaked at <unk> mm ( 28 @.@ 5 in ) near <unk> . Rising <unk> resulted in the temporary <unk> of government offices and numerous mudslides . In addition , strong winds caused widespread power outages . Overall damage from <unk> in the Philippines amounted to <unk> 192 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 65 million ) . The floods also displaced 8 @,@ 367 people in 1 @,@ <unk> families and destroyed 178 homes . <unk> and its extratropical remnants later brought torrential rainfall and widespread flooding to Japan , particularly in southwestern regions . Rainfall there peaked at <unk> mm ( 28 @.@ 62 in ) . Flood damage was worst in <unk> and <unk> Prefectures , where several buildings were destroyed by <unk> . Other locations in Japan experienced considerable agricultural damage as well as numerous landslides . Overall , <unk> caused roughly $ 28 @.@ 2 million in damage , much of which occurred in Japan , though the entirety of deaths associated with the cyclone took place in the Philippines . \n', '', ' = = = Severe Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', " In late May , an area of disturbed weather began to persist in the South China Sea . The JTWC began to monitor the storm cluster on May 29 . The following day , the JMA reclassified the system as a tropical depression ; initially the system remained highly disorganized due to the lack of deep convection . <unk> moderate wind shear and dry air prevented the cyclone from strengthening significantly in the storm 's early stages . These conditions <unk> as the depression tracked northeast , and at 0000 UTC on June 1 , the JMA upgraded the system to Tropical Storm <unk> . Throughout the course of the day , <unk> continued to strengthen as it accelerated northeast , and peaked in strength with a barometric pressure of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) and maximum sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , making it a severe tropical storm . \n", ' However , upon moving through the <unk> Channel , conditions began to deteriorate due to increased wind shear , weakening the system and resulting in its <unk> to tropical depression status by the JMA at 1200 UTC on June 3 . <unk> continued to become increasingly disorganized as it moved further north , and late that day , the depression transitioned to an extratropical cyclone . The resulting remnants continued to track well east of Japan before dissipating on June 7 . Due to its track away from <unk> , damage remained minimal ; however , as <unk> passed to the south and east of Japan , the storm brought light rainfall to the country , peaking at 81 mm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) in <unk> , Okinawa . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' A tropical disturbance persisted in the monsoon trough northwest of <unk> on June 7 , and moved westward without development due to wind shear . On June 11 , the shear decreased enough to allow the convection to organize , and the next day the JMA classified it as a tropical depression northeast of <unk> . On June 13 , the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm <unk> to the east of the Philippines , and PAGASA gave it the local name " <unk> " . <unk> moved to the northwest and later to the north , parallel to the eastern Philippines , and on June 17 , the JMA upgraded it to typhoon status . The storm rapidly intensified to the east of Taiwan as it developed a well @-@ defined eye , and while doing so passed over the Japanese island of <unk> @-@ <unk> at around <unk> UTC on June 17 . At 0600 UTC on June 18 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , while the JMA estimated peak 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Increased shear weakened the typhoon to tropical storm strengthen on June 19 , and later that day the JMA declared the storm as extratropical near the <unk> Islands . The extratropical remnants of <unk> continued to the northeast , crossing northern Japan on June 20 and dissipating on June 24 . \n', ' While offshore the Philippines , <unk> dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding and left thousands homeless . The storm caused <unk> 131 million ( PHP , $ 2 @.@ 46 million USD ) in damage and 12 deaths . On the Japanese island of <unk> @-@ <unk> , where wind gusts reached 204 km / h ( 127 mph ) . It also affected Taiwan , where floods covered highways and caused mudslides . In Japan , the storm caused widespread power outages , although damage was minimal , and there were 21 injuries . In South Korea , there was $ 12 @.@ 1 million in damage and two deaths . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon Imbudo ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' On July 15 , the JMA estimated that a tropical depression formed , and the next day the JTWC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression <unk> about <unk> km ( 415 mi ) east of Yap . A subtropical ridge near Okinawa steered the nascent depression to the west @-@ northwest for much of its duration . With warm waters and favorable upper @-@ level conditions , the depression quickly organized , first to Tropical Storm Imbudo on July 17 , and to typhoon status two days later , when PAGASA begin issuing advisories on Typhoon <unk> . Around that time , Imbudo was rapidly intensifying , developing a well @-@ defined eye . At 1200 UTC on July 20 , the JMA estimated peak 10 minute sustained winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , and the same time , the JTWC estimated 1 minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , making it a super typhoon . Imbudo maintained peak winds for about 12 hours , before undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle . At 0300 UTC on July 22 , Imbudo struck northern Luzon , with 1 minute winds estimated at 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) by the JTWC . It weakened over land , but re @-@ intensified in the South China Sea , striking southern China near Yangjiang , Guangdong on July 24 . Imbudo rapidly weakened , dissipating on July 25 . \n', ' In the Philippines , officials evacuated over 14 @,@ 000 people . Imbudo was the strongest typhoon to strike since Typhoon <unk> five years prior , The typhoon left widespread areas flooded for several days . Damage was heaviest in the Cagayan Valley , where over 80 @,@ 000 people were displaced by the storm . In Isabela , high winds wrecked most of the banana crop and severely damaged other crops . Throughout the Philippines , Imbudo damaged or destroyed 62 @,@ 314 houses , causing <unk> billion ( 2003 PHP , $ 86 million 2003 USD ) in damage . There were 64 deaths in the country . In southern China in Yangjiang , more than 30 @,@ 000 people evacuated ahead of the storm , and more than half of the trees in the city fell due to strong winds . High winds killed a man in Hong Kong after knocking him off a platform . Throughout Guangdong , Imbudo destroyed 595 @,@ 000 houses and caused eight deaths . Heavy rains spread across southern China , peaking at 343 mm ( 13 @.@ 5 in ) at <unk> County in Guangxi province . There , 12 people died from the storm . Overall damage in China was about ¥ 4 @.@ 45 billion ( CNY , $ <unk> million USD ) . \n', '', ' = = = Severe Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' <unk> originated from a tropical depression situated within the monsoon trough to the east of the Philippines on July 15 . Tracking westward , intensification was slow and the system remained a tropical depression as it moved across the central Philippines on July 17 . Upon moving into the South China Sea , conditions allowed for quicker strengthening , and the cyclone reached tropical storm status on July 18 before reaching its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) , making it a severe tropical storm . However , atmospheric conditions began to deteriorate as <unk> made landfall on <unk> on July 21 , weakening the system . The tropical storm continued to weaken as it moved over the Gulf of <unk> prior to a final landfall near Hanoi , Vietnam the following day . Tracking inland , the combination of land interaction and wind shear caused <unk> to dissipate over Laos on July 23 . \n', " Shortly after development , <unk> tracked through the Philippines , killing two people . After moving into the South China Sea , turbulence produced by the storm resulted in an aviation incident involving a commercial airliner off the western Philippines . Three of the plane 's occupants received minor injuries . In <unk> , <unk> caused heavy rainfall , peaking at 189 mm ( 7 @.@ 44 in ) at a station on <unk> Mountain . The rains resulted in the collapse of 1 @,@ 400 homes and an estimated <unk> ¥ 140 @.@ 27 million ( US $ 16 @.@ 9 million ) in direct economic losses . Effects were worst in Vietnam , where three people were killed . Widespread power outages occurred , and strong winds resulted in agricultural and infrastructural damage , particularly in Vietnam 's northern provinces . \n", '', ' = = = Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' <unk> spawned from an area of disturbed weather in the Philippine Sea on July 31 . Tracking northwest , favorable conditions allowed for the intensification of the system to tropical storm strength on August 2 . <unk> reached peak intensity later that day with winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) and a minimum barometric pressure of <unk> mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 29 inHg ) . This intensity was held for several hours until less conducive atmospheric conditions slightly weakened the system ; this was followed by <unk> making landfall on southern Taiwan on August 3 . Subsequently , the storm weakened and moved into the Taiwan Strait before making its final landfall near <unk> , China the next day . The storm quickly weakened over the Chinese mainland , and dissipated entirely several hours after landfall . \n', ' In Taiwan , where <unk> first made landfall , heavy rainfall resulted in flooding . Commercial flights , schools , and rail service in some areas was cancelled in advance of the storm . Precipitation there peaked at 653 mm ( 25 @.@ 71 in ) over a period of nearly two days in <unk> County . <unk> damage also resulted from the rainfall , and was estimated at over <unk> $ 70 million ( US $ 2 million ) . In China , record rainfall was reported . The worst impacted city was <unk> , where losses due to <unk> reached <unk> ¥ 240 million ( US $ 29 million ) and one death was reported . Power outages were also widespread across southeastern China . Due to <unk> drought conditions , 703 cloud <unk> operations took place in order to artificially generate added rainfall ; such operations resulted in moderate precipitation over the targeted area . Overall , <unk> caused roughly $ 31 million in damage and three deaths . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' A tropical depression developed on August 2 southeast of Guam , and gradually intensified while moving to the northwest , becoming a tropical storm on August 3 and a typhoon a day later . <unk> formed an eye and became a large storm by the time it approached Okinawa on August 7 . The typhoon attained peak winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) before weakening slightly while turning to the northeast . <unk> made landfall on the Japanese island of <unk> on August 8 , and later moved across portions of <unk> and <unk> . After weakening to tropical storm status , the cyclone became extratropical on August 9 and dissipated three days later . \n', ' While passing northeast of the Philippines , the typhoon caused light damage in the archipelago . The eye crossed over Okinawa , where <unk> left 166 @,@ 800 people without power and caused 10 injuries . Near where <unk> first struck Japan , <unk> reported a peak wind gust of 166 km / h ( 103 mph ) , at the time the third strongest on record there . The typhoon also dropped torrential rainfall peaking at <unk> mm ( 26 @.@ 9 in ) . The combination of winds and rainfall caused landslides , particularly on <unk> . Nationwide , <unk> killed 20 people , destroyed 708 houses , and caused ¥ 35 @.@ 1 billion ( <unk> , $ <unk> @.@ 8 million USD ) in damage . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', " <unk> originated from a tropical disturbance within the monsoon trough east of <unk> State on August 13 . Despite rather favorable conditions , the initial tropical depression did not intensify significantly and degenerated into a remnant low on August 18 . However , these remnants were able to reorganize and the system was reclassified as a tropical cyclone a day later . <unk> was rather rapid upon the storm 's <unk> – the depression reached tropical storm status on August 20 and then typhoon intensity two days later . Shortly after , <unk> made landfall on Luzon at peak intensity with winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . The typhoon emerged into the South China Sea as a much weaker tropical storm , though it was able to <unk> over warm waters . Once again at typhoon intensity , <unk> <unk> <unk> before moving over the <unk> Peninsula on its way to a final landfall near <unk> <unk> , Vietnam on August 25 . Quick weakening due to land interaction occurred as <unk> moved across northern Vietnam , where the storm met its demise the following day . \n", " <unk> first struck the Philippines , resulting in heavy rainfall and <unk> approximately 1 @,@ 000 families . The flooding caused severe damage and killed one person . <unk> 's effects were much more severe in China . In Hong Kong , eleven people were injured and isolated flooding occurred as a result of the typhoon 's outer rainbands . However , Guangdong Province , <unk> Province , and Guangxi were the Chinese regions most extensively impacted . The typhoon brought record wind gusts into Guangxi . In those three regions combined , 13 @,@ 000 homes were estimated to have collapsed and a large <unk> of farmland was damaged . Two people were killed in China and economic losses <unk> to ¥ 2 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 253 million ) . Due to its positioning and track , of all areas in Vietnam only the country 's more northern regions were impacted by <unk> . Flash flooding occurred in earnest in those regions , and 1 @,@ 000 homes were flattened . One person was killed and five others were injured in Vietnam . Overall , the typhoon was responsible for the deaths of four persons . \n", '', ' = = = Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' The monsoon trough spawned several tropical disturbances in the middle of August , one of which became Tropical Depression <unk> near the Philippines . On August 18 , an area of convection persisted on the southern side of a circulation , developing into a tropical depression east of Luzon . It moved quickly northward and later to the northwest in an area generally unfavorable for strengthening , such as the presence of wind shear and land interaction . On August 19 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm <unk> to the east of Taiwan . Later that day , the circulation passed just 55 km ( 35 mi ) north of <unk> , although the convection was exposed that time . On August 20 , the JMA assessed <unk> as dissipating in the Taiwan Strait , although the JTWC continued advisories until the storm moved ashore in southeastern China . \n', ' Rainfall in Taiwan reached 69 mm ( 2 @.@ 7 in ) in Ilan County . On the island , the storm left several hundred houses without power due to a lightning strike . On mainland China , rainfall peaked at 101 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 in ) in <unk> , Zhejiang , which were largely beneficial in <unk> drought conditions , while winds gusted to 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The storm damaged or destroyed 5 @,@ 880 houses and flooded 1 @,@ <unk> ha ( 3 @,@ 180 acres ) of <unk> fields , causing ¥ 38 @.@ 6 million ( CNY , $ 4 @.@ 7 million USD ) in damage . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' On August 27 , a tropical depression developed about 520 km ( 325 mi ) northwest of Guam , which initially drifted to the southwest before turning to the northwest . On August 29 , the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm <unk> , and that day PAGASA began issuing advisories on Tropical Storm <unk> . The storm quickly intensified into a typhoon , after developing an eye in the center . On September 1 , the JMA estimated <unk> attained peak 10 minute winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) , and the JTWC assessed peak 1 – minute winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . While near peak intensity , the center of <unk> passed about 45 km ( 30 mi ) south of the southern tip of Taiwan . The typhoon weakened steadily and was a severe tropical storm by the time it made landfall on September 2 just east of Hong Kong . The JTWC estimated landfall winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , making it the strongest typhoon to strike the Pearl River Delta since Typhoon Hope in 1979 . <unk> rapidly weakened while continuing westward through China , dissipating on September 3 over Guangxi . \n', ' In the Philippines , <unk> interacted with the monsoon to produce heavy rainfall , killing one person . While in the vicinity , <unk> produced gusts of 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) on <unk> , a Japanese <unk> of Okinawa . Heavy rainfall in Taiwan reached 628 mm ( 24 @.@ 7 in ) in <unk> County , and winds peaked at 176 km / h ( 109 mph ) on Orchid Island before the <unk> was destroyed . The caused about <unk> $ 200 ( <unk> , $ 115 million USD ) in crop damage , and killed three people . Damage was minor in Hong Kong , and four fishermen were missing and presumed drowned after their boat sank . On the Chinese mainland , strong winds left 90 % of the city of <unk> without power , and killed 16 construction workers due to a half @-@ finished building collapsing . Across Guangdong , the typhoon damaged crops and destroyed 54 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed . Overall damage in China was estimated at ¥ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( CNY , $ 277 million USD ) , and across Guangdong , the typhoon killed 40 people . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' Typhoon <unk> formed on September 4 from the monsoon trough in the western Pacific Ocean . It slowly intensified into a tropical storm while moving northwestward , and <unk> became a typhoon on September 8 . That day , it quickly intensified due to favorable conditions , developing a well @-@ defined eye and reaching peak maximum sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . While near peak intensity , <unk> was <unk> and began turning to the north @-@ northeast . The eyewall soon after passed over the Japanese island of <unk> @-@ <unk> on September 10 , producing the fourth lowest pressure on record in Japan after a pressure of <unk> mbar ( 26 @.@ 9 inHg ) was recorded . With warm waters , <unk> was able to maintain much of its intensity before it made landfall just west of <unk> , South Korea on September 12 . On <unk> Island , <unk> produced a peak wind gust of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) and a minimum pressure of 950 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , both setting records for the country , and making it the most powerful typhoon to strike South Korea since record @-@ keeping began in the country in 1904 . The typhoon became extratropical in the Sea of Japan the next day , although the remnants persisted for several more days , bringing strong winds to northern Japan . \n', ' The typhoon first affected the <unk> Islands of Japan . On <unk> @-@ <unk> , strong winds damaged 104 buildings , and 95 % of residents lost power . <unk> dropped heavy rainfall there , including rates of 58 @.@ 5 mm ( 2 @.@ 30 in ) in an hour , and 402 @.@ 5 mm ( 15 @.@ 85 in ) in 24 hours , the latter setting a record . One person died on <unk> @-@ <unk> after being struck by flying glass . Elsewhere in Japan , the storm caused flights to be canceled , while rainfall @-@ induced landslides blocked roads . There were two other deaths in Japan , and damage totaled ¥ 11 @.@ 3 billion ( <unk> , $ 96 million USD ) . Damage was heaviest in South Korea , notably where it moved ashore . Winds in <unk> near the landfall location reached 154 km / h ( 96 mph ) , the second @-@ highest on record . There , the port sustained heavy damage , causing disruptions to exports in the months following the storm . Nationwide , the high winds destroyed about 5 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 13 @,@ 000 homes and businesses , leaving 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 1 @.@ 47 million lost power , and widespread crop damage occurred , resulting in the worst rice crop in 23 years . Across South Korea , <unk> killed 117 people , and overall damage totaled <unk> 5 @.@ 52 trillion won ( $ 4 @.@ 8 billion USD ) . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' In the middle of September , the monsoon trough spawned a rapidly organizing disturbance east @-@ northeast of Luzon , with weak wind shear and favorable conditions . On September 16 , the JMA classified it as a tropical depression , and the JTWC initiated advisories the next day . The system moved to the northwest due to the subtropical ridge to the northeast and later to the north . On September 18 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm <unk> @-@ <unk> , the same day that PAGASA classified it as Tropical Storm <unk> . An eastward @-@ moving trough turned the storm to the northeast , bringing the track over Okinawa and <unk> <unk> on September 19 . <unk> @-@ <unk> continued gradually intensifying , becoming a typhoon on September 20 to the southeast of Japan . That day , the JMA estimated peak winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on September 21 , after <unk> @-@ <unk> developed a well @-@ defined eye . The typhoon weakened due to increasing wind shear , deteriorating to severe tropical storm status on September 22 before JMA declared it extratropical on September 23 . The remnants of <unk> @-@ <unk> continued to the northeast , exited the basin on September 24 , and eventually struck southern Alaska on September 25 . \n', ' Wind gusts in Okinawa reached 115 km / h ( 72 mph ) , while on the volcanic island of <unk> @-@ <unk> , gusts reached <unk> km / h ( 133 mph ) . On the Japanese mainland , winds gusted to 126 km / h ( 78 mph ) at <unk> , <unk> . <unk> @-@ <unk> dropped heavy rainfall while near Japan , peaking at 316 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 in ) on <unk> @-@ <unk> . In Okinawa , <unk> @-@ <unk> flooded a boat , forcing its occupants to be rescued by the Coast Guard . Also on the island , heavy rainfall caused landslides and flooded houses . In <unk> <unk> , the storm left 10 @,@ <unk> people without power . On <unk> , wind gusts of <unk> km / h ( 133 mph ) damaged about 200 houses . Nationwide , <unk> @-@ <unk> destroyed 191 homes , injured 9 people , and left about ¥ 300 million ( <unk> , $ 2 @.@ 5 million USD ) . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' Towards the end of September , the monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance east @-@ northeast of Yap , which became a tropical depression on September 24 . There were initially several <unk> , with a tropical upper tropospheric trough to the northeast increasing outflow . After slowing and turning to the northeast , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm <unk> on September 26 . After the storm developed a large eye feature , the JTWC upgraded it to typhoon status on September 27 , although the JMA did not follow suit until the following day while near <unk> @-@ <unk> . Also that day , <unk> passed 95 km ( 60 mi ) west of Iwo Jima , and the JMA estimated peak 10 minute winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) , before an approaching trough caused the typhoon to accelerate northeastward . The convection diminished near the center , causing <unk> to become extratropical on September 30 . The remnants continued generally northeastward through the <unk> Islands , eventually passing south of mainland Alaska on October 7 . \n', ' On <unk> @-@ <unk> , Typhoon <unk> produced sustained winds of 102 km / h ( 63 mph ) , with gusts to 200 km / h ( 124 mph ) , which was the third strongest on record for the station . Rainfall there reached 183 mm ( 7 @.@ 2 in ) . Wind gusts on Iwo Jima peaked at 109 km / h ( 68 mph ) . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' In the middle of October , an area of convection persisted along the monsoon trough between Luzon and Guam , developing into a tropical depression on October 17 . The same monsoon trough later spawned Typhoon <unk> to the east . For several days , the system remained disorganized while drifting to the west @-@ northwest due to weak steering currents south of the subtropical ridge . On October 19 , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm <unk> , and by that time the storm had begun drifting to the northeast . With favorable outflow , <unk> quickly intensified into a typhoon on October 20 after developing an eye , and two days later , the JMA estimated peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The JTWC estimated peak 1 minute winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) around the time the well @-@ defined eye had expanded to 37 km ( 23 mi ) . Subsequently , the typhoon accelerated northeastward into the westerlies and began weakening due to increasing wind shear and dry air . On October 26 , <unk> became extratropical to the east of Japan and dissipated the next day . The passage of the typhoon caused surface <unk> a concentration in the ocean to increase 30 @-@ fold . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The same monsoon trough that spawned Typhoon <unk> also produced an area of convection to the north @-@ northeast of Guam , becoming a tropical depression on October 19 . The system moved northwestward and later turned to the northeast around the subtropical ridge . With low wind shear and favorable outflow , the convection became better organized , and the JMA upgraded it to Tropical Storm <unk> on October 21 . After an eye began to form , <unk> was upgraded to typhoon status the next day . An approaching trough caused <unk> to accelerate northeastward while also increasing outflow . On October 24 , the JMA estimated peak winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) while the JTWC estimated winds of 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) , an unusually high intensity for 30 ° N. Subsequently , <unk> rounded the subtropical ridge and began moving to the east @-@ southeast , beginning a nearly week @-@ long loop . The cold front had passed to the north and failed to bring the typhoon northeastward . \n', ' Increasing wind shear weakened the convection , and <unk> deteriorated into a severe tropical storm on October 26 . The next day , it began moving westward while passing about 345 km ( 215 mi ) north of Wake Island . A large eye of 110 km ( 70 mi ) in diameter developed , and on October 28 , the JMA re @-@ upgraded <unk> to typhoon status . The next day , the typhoon turned to the northeast due to another approaching trough . With decreasing wind shear and warmer waters , <unk> re @-@ intensified significantly on October 29 , reaching a secondary peak of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) according to JMA , and 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) according to JTWC . The storm moved very closely along the track it took several days prior . Increasing wind shear on October 30 caused rapid weakening , resulting in the eye dissipating . By the next day , the center was exposed , and <unk> became extratropical , later exiting the basin on November 1 . The remnants weakened , later turning to the southeast and dissipating on November 11 southwest of California . \n', '', ' = = = Severe Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' Late in October , an area of convection persisted northwest of <unk> and quickly organized into a tropical depression on October 29 . Moving west @-@ northwestward toward the Philippines due to a ridge to the east , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm <unk> on October 30 . With minimal wind shear , the storm strengthened further and developed a large eye . The JTWC upgraded <unk> to typhoon status on October 31 , estimating peak 1 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , although the JMA estimated the storm only attained peak 10 minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Early on November 1 , <unk> made landfall on northeastern Luzon in the Philippines , south of <unk> . The storm weakened over land and emerged into the South China Sea . By that time , it was moving northward along the periphery of the ridge to the east . On November 2 , <unk> turned to the northeast , passing just east of Taiwan . The next day , it weakened to tropical depression status , and after <unk> offshore eastern Taiwan , <unk> continued northeastward . It became extratropical on November 5 and dissipated the next day near southern Japan . \n', ' In the Philippines , <unk> dropped about 150 mm ( 6 in ) of rainfall , which flooded the Cagayan River and killed four people . In Taiwan , rainfall reached <unk> mm ( 21 @.@ 8 in ) in <unk> County . On the Japanese island of <unk> , rainfall totaled 197 mm ( 7 @.@ 8 in ) , which broke the <unk> and daily record for the station in November . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' A tropical depression developed near Yap on November 11 . The system intensified gradually as it tracked quickly westward toward the Philippines . An anticyclone <unk> allowed for strengthening , and the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm <unk> on November 12 . Simultaneously , the cyclone entered the area of responsibility of the Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration , which named it Tropical Storm <unk> . At around 1600 UTC on November 13 , <unk> made landfall on northern <unk> Island in the Philippines before traversing the remainder of the archipelago from east to west . The cyclone emerged into the South China Sea weakened but quickly re @-@ intensified while continuing to the west @-@ northwest . The JTWC estimated peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) on November 16 , and later that day , the JMA upgraded the storm to typhoon status , estimating peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . On November 18 , <unk> passed near southwestern <unk> and weakened , with the convection diminishing from the circulation . By the next day , the system weakened to tropical depression status , and dissipated shortly after moving ashore over <unk> , China . \n', ' In the Philippines , <unk> produced strong winds , heavy rainfall , and rough seas . The storm caused widespread power outages and ferry disruptions . According to the PAGASA in its post @-@ storm report , a total of 13 people lost their lives during the storm . On <unk> , the storm helped end one of the worst summer droughts in almost 65 years , although it also left heavy crop damage , <unk> 64 @,@ 000 ha ( 160 @,@ 000 acres ) of fields and killing 400 head of livestock . With about 800 homes destroyed , damage on <unk> amounted to $ 197 million ( 2003 USD ) . Effects were minor in mainland China . \n', '', ' = = = Typhoon <unk> ( <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' Typhoon <unk> formed on November 18 from the monsoon trough to the west of the Marshall Islands . Early in its duration , it moved generally to the west or west @-@ southwest . On November 21 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm <unk> , and two days later , it strengthened into a typhoon , developing an eye . <unk> later began a prolonged movement to the northwest , during which it passed near several islands in Yap State . The typhoon reached peak intensity on November 26 , with peak 10 – minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . It later weakened due to a variety of unfavorable conditions , and after <unk> to the northeast , <unk> became extratropical south of Japan on December 2 . \n', ' Typhoon <unk> first affected <unk> with gusty winds , and later it damaged or destroyed about 200 homes in <unk> State . There , high waves flooded roads and homes , while high winds damaged crops . Damage was heaviest in Yap State , mostly in the small <unk> <unk> and <unk> Island . On both islands , the typhoon contaminated the water supply and wrecked the crops . Rainfall reached 263 mm ( 10 @.@ 35 in ) on <unk> , and gusts reached 158 km / h ( 98 mph ) . Throughout the <unk> , damage totaled about $ 1 @.@ 7 million , although there were no deaths . The damage prompted the <unk> government to declare two states as disaster areas , as well as a disaster declaration from the United States federal government . While <unk> was becoming extratropical , it became the first typhoon in December to threaten Japan in 13 years . The storm dropped rainfall that resulted in mudslides and flight <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Other storms = = = \n', '', ' An area of convection formed on May 16 to the southwest of <unk> , located within an area of weak wind shear . The next day , the JMA and the JTWC both classified the system as a tropical depression . The convection was disorganized in association with multiple circulation centers , although it gradually organized . Moving westward initially , the depression turned more to the north into an area of increasing wind shear . On May 19 , the JTWC upgraded the system to Tropical Storm <unk> , and on the same day , PAGASA classified it as Tropical Depression <unk> . Soon after , the convection decreased from the center , and by May 20 , all warning agencies had discontinued advisories . \n', ' On July 9 , PAGASA classified a system as Tropical Depression Falcon , off the west coast of the Philippines . The JMA also briefly initiated advisories before dropping them later on July 9 . Later in the month , PAGASA briefly issued advisories on Tropical Depression <unk> on July 30 off the east coast of <unk> . The depression dissipated the next day , causing about <unk> million ( PHP , $ 145 @,@ 000 USD ) in damage . The monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression north of Luzon on August 18 , with PAGASA naming it <unk> . There were several <unk> in the region , with Tropical Storm <unk> to the northeast near Taiwan , and the overall system moved generally westward . PAGASA briefly classified <unk> as a tropical storm on August 19 before ending advisories the next day . The system spread rainfall across China , reaching 82 @.@ 4 mm ( 3 @.@ 24 in ) in <unk> , <unk> . \n', ' On September 5 , former Hurricane <unk> crossed the International Date Line into the basin . By that time , the circulation was largely exposed from the convection , and the center quickly dissipated . Later in the month , the monsoon trough spawned a disturbance east of the Philippines that PAGASA classified as Tropical Depression <unk> on September 15 . The system moved westward but never intensified , dissipating west of Luzon on September 19 . The broad system also spawned Typhoon <unk> @-@ <unk> . \n', ' In October , the JTWC classified Tropical Depression <unk> early in the month off the west coast of Luzon . With weak steering currents , the system moved slowly southwestward before <unk> to the northwest . On October 10 , the depression dissipated just off the coast of southern China . On October 5 , the JMA monitored a tropical depression southeast of Taiwan that later passed near the island , producing heavy rainfall that peaked at 153 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) in Ilan County . A few days later , the JTWC monitored Tropical Depression <unk> , which developed on October 12 after an extratropical storm produced an area of convection . Described as a subtropical low , the depression moved generally northeastward toward Japan due to an approaching cold front . The depression moved through <unk> and <unk> before dissipating on October 13 . The depression dropped 285 mm ( 11 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall in <unk> , while strong winds associated reached 217 km / h ( 135 mph ) through a storm @-@ produced <unk> . The winds knocked over two cranes , killing two people , and left about 9 @,@ 000 homes without power . The depression also killed two people due to <unk> . On October 16 , the JMA briefly classified a tropical depression to the east of the <unk> Islands . On October 22 , a tropical depression developed in the South China Sea , classified by PAGASA as <unk> . The system moved eastward and crossed <unk> before dissipating on October 24 . In the Philippines , the depression killed one person and caused minor damage . Also in October , the monsoon trough spawned a tropical depression in the Gulf of Thailand , which moved northwestward and crossed into the Indian Ocean , dropping heavy rainfall in Thailand . \n', ' In mid @-@ November , the JMA briefly tracked a weak tropical depression near Wake Island . The agency also briefly tracked a tropical depression off the coast of Vietnam on December 16 . It finally dissipated on December 17 , with the pressure and winds unknown . The final system of the year was a tropical depression that originated out of the monsoon trough on December 24 east of the Philippines . After initially moving to the west , it turned to the south , and the JTWC estimated the depression intensified into a tropical storm . During this time , PAGASA classified it as Tropical Storm <unk> . The system made landfall in northeastern <unk> and dissipated on December 27 , bringing heavy rainfall . \n', '', ' = = Storm names = = \n', '', " Within the North @-@ western Pacific Ocean , both the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) and the Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration assign names to tropical cyclones that develop in the Western Pacific , which can result in a tropical cyclone having two names . The Japan Meteorological Agency 's <unk> Tokyo — Typhoon Center assigns international names to tropical cyclones on behalf of the World Meteorological Organization 's Typhoon Committee , should they be judged to have 10 @-@ minute sustained <unk> of 65 km / h , ( 40 mph ) . While the Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration assigns names to tropical cyclones which move into or form as a tropical depression in their area of responsibility located between 135 ° E and 115 ° E and between 5 ° N @-@ 25 ° N even if the cyclone has had an international name assigned to it . The names of significant tropical cyclones are retired , by both PAGASA and the Typhoon Committee . Should the list of names for the Philippine region be exhausted then names will be taken from an auxiliary list of which the first ten are published each season . <unk> names are marked in gray . \n", '', ' = = = International names = = = \n', '', ' During the season 21 named tropical cyclones developed in the Western Pacific and were named by the Japan Meteorological Agency , when it was determined that they had become tropical storms . These names were contributed to a list of a 140 names submitted by the fourteen members nations and territories of the <unk> / <unk> Typhoon Committee . \n', '', ' = = = Philippines = = = \n', '', ' The Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration uses its own naming scheme for tropical cyclones in their area of responsibility . PAGASA assigns names to tropical depressions that form within their area of responsibility and any tropical cyclone that might move into their area of responsibility . Should the list of names for a given year prove to be insufficient , names are taken from an auxiliary list , the first 10 of which are published each year before the season starts . The names not retired from this list will be used again in the 2007 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The names Imbudo and <unk> were retired by the <unk> / <unk> Typhoon Committee . The names <unk> and <unk> were chosen to replace Imbudo and <unk> respectively . While <unk> was requested by Hong Kong to be removed in the list , and was replaced by <unk> . The Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) announced that the name <unk> had its name retired due to extensive damage . The name Hanna was chosen to replace <unk> . Also , the name " <unk> " was replaced by " <unk> " , after it was found that <unk> was a <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Storm effects = = \n', '', ' The following table provides basic meteorological and impact information for each tropical cyclone from the 2003 Pacific typhoon season in <unk> format ; unnamed tropical cyclones are not included . PAGASA names for storms are provided in parentheses . Storms entering from the Central Pacific only include their information while in the western Pacific , and are noted with an <unk> * . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' An <unk> is an organic molecule that features a three @-@ membered <unk> containing oxygen , nitrogen , and carbon . In their largest application , <unk> are <unk> in the industrial production of <unk> . <unk> derivatives are also used as specialized reagents in organic chemistry for a variety of <unk> , including alpha <unk> of <unk> , <unk> and <unk> of <unk> , and other <unk> transfer reactions . <unk> also serve as precursors to <unk> and participate in [ 3 + 2 ] <unk> with various <unk> to form substituted five @-@ membered <unk> . <unk> <unk> derivatives effect asymmetric oxygen transfer to <unk> <unk> as well as other substrates . Some <unk> also have the property of a high barrier to <unk> of the nitrogen , allowing for the possibility of <unk> at the nitrogen center . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', ' <unk> derivatives were first reported in the mid @-@ 1950s by <unk> and subsequently by <unk> and Horner and <unk> . Whereas oxygen and nitrogen typically act as <unk> due to their high <unk> , <unk> allow for <unk> transfer of both <unk> . This unusual reactivity is due to the presence of the highly strained three membered ring and the relatively weak N @-@ O bond . <unk> tend to attack at the <unk> nitrogen when the nitrogen <unk> is small ( R1 = H ) , and at the oxygen atom when the nitrogen <unk> has greater <unk> bulk . The unusual electronics of the <unk> system may be exploited to perform a number of oxygen and nitrogen transfer reactions including , but not limited to : α @-@ <unk> of <unk> , <unk> of <unk> , selective oxidation of sulfides and <unk> , <unk> of N @-@ <unk> and N @-@ <unk> . \n', ' The <unk> process for the industrial production of <unk> through the oxidation of ammonia with hydrogen <unk> in the presence of <unk> was developed in the early 1970s . \n', ' <unk> <unk> proved useful in the syntheses of complex natural product , such as <unk> which is marketed as a chemotherapy agent . Both the <unk> <unk> total synthesis and the <unk> <unk> total synthesis feature asymmetric α @-@ <unk> with <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Synthesis = = \n', '', '', ' = = = N @-@ H , N @-@ <unk> , N @-@ <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The two main approaches to synthesis of N @-@ H , N @-@ <unk> , and N @-@ <unk> are oxidation of <unk> with <unk> ( A ) and <unk> of <unk> ( B ) . \n', ' Additionally , oxidation of <unk> <unk> and oxidation of <unk> with <unk> <unk> may yield <unk> <unk> . Some <unk> have the unique property of <unk> stable nitrogen atoms at room temperature due to an <unk> barrier of 24 to 31 <unk> / <unk> . <unk> <unk> where <unk> is entirely due to <unk> stable nitrogen are reported . \n', '', ' = = = N @-@ <unk> = = = \n', '', ' In the late 1970s and early 1980s Franklin A. Davis synthesized the first N @-@ <unk> , which act exclusively as oxygen transfer reagents , and are the most predominantly used class of <unk> today . While originally synthesized with <unk> and the phase transfer catalyst <unk> chloride , an improved synthesis using <unk> as the <unk> is now most prevalent . \n', ' Many N @-@ <unk> are used today , each with slightly different properties and reactivity . These reagents are summarized in the table below . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> <unk> = = = \n', '', ' With highly electron withdrawing <unk> <unk> , <unk> exhibit reactivity more similar to that of <unk> than typical <unk> . Notably , <unk> <unk> certain C @-@ H bonds with high selectivity . <unk> <unk> may be synthesized by <unk> a <unk> <unk> to <unk> <unk> <unk> and a metal fluoride to act as an HF <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Reactions of <unk> = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> production = = = \n', '', ' <unk> are <unk> in the <unk> process for the production of <unk> . Many millions of kilograms of <unk> are produced annually by this method that involves a step wherein ammonia is <unk> in the presence of methyl <unk> <unk> to give the <unk> : \n', ' Me ( <unk> ) C = O + <unk> + <unk> → Me ( <unk> ) <unk> + H2O \n', ' In subsequent steps the <unk> is converted to the <unk> , which is the immediate en route to <unk> : \n', ' Me ( <unk> ) <unk> + <unk> → Me ( <unk> ) C = <unk> + H2O \n', '', ' = = = <unk> transfer = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = α @-@ <unk> of <unk> = = = = \n', '', " α @-@ <unk> , or <unk> , are an important synthetic motifs present in many natural <unk> α @-@ <unk> have been synthesized in many ways , including reduction of α @-@ <unk> , substitution of a <unk> for a leaving group and direct oxidation of an <unk> . <unk> ( <unk> ) - ( <unk> <unk> ) ( <unk> ) and N @-@ <unk> are the most common <unk> sources of oxygen implemented in this process . One advantage of using N @-@ <unk> is that higher <unk> induction is almost invariably observed relative to <unk> and other <unk> . High yield ( 77 @-@ 91 % ) and <unk> ( 95 : 5 - 99 : 1 ) are reported for α @-@ <unk> with the Evans ' <unk> auxiliary with N @-@ <unk> as the <unk> . <unk> induction has been demonstrated with many other <unk> <unk> and <unk> with <unk> <unk> , including <unk> and <unk> . \n", ' Extensive work has been reported on asymmetric <unk> of <unk> <unk> with <unk> derivatives , achieving moderate to high enantiomeric excess . The commonly accepted proposed transition state that <unk> this <unk> outcome involves an open transition state where the <unk> bulk of R1 determines the face of approach . \n', ' The selectivity of some <unk> may be drastically improved in some cases with the addition of coordinating groups alpha to the <unk> ring as <unk> <unk> and <unk> in the table above . In these instances it is proposed that the reaction proceeds through a closed transition state where the metal <unk> is stabilized by <unk> from the sulfate and coordinating groups on the camphor skeleton . \n', ' α @-@ <unk> with <unk> has been widely implemented in total synthesis . It is a key step in both the <unk> <unk> total synthesis and the <unk> <unk> total synthesis . Additionally , <unk> implemented the transformation in his synthesis of the <unk> @-@ <unk> ( <unk> 1 @,@ 7 @-@ <unk> [ 5 @.@ 5 ] <unk> @-@ 3 @-@ <unk> ) System of <unk> acid . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> of <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> of <unk> is a common reaction because epoxides can be <unk> in a number of useful ways . <unk> , laboratory <unk> is carried out with <unk> or other <unk> . <unk> have been found to be useful for the formation of highly acid sensitive epoxides . ( − ) <unk> was synthesized via <unk> <unk> as a late stage transformation as seen below . \n', ' Another transformation of high synthetic utility is asymmetric <unk> . A number of asymmetric <unk> exist : the <unk> <unk> , the <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> , and the <unk> @-@ Colonna <unk> . These methods require specific functionality in order to achieve selectivity . The <unk> <unk> is specific to <unk> <unk> , the <unk> <unk> requires <unk> @-@ <unk> <unk> <unk> , and the <unk> <unk> requires α @-@ β <unk> <unk> . <unk> <unk> act <unk> on many <unk> <unk> . It has even possible to effect <unk> <unk> <unk> in the <unk> <unk> unit . Further investigation into these reactions may be required before levels of <unk> excess become practical for large scale synthesis . <unk> et al. have investigated asymmetric <unk> with a <unk> <unk> salt using <unk> as the stoichiometric <unk> seen below . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> of <unk> <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> are known to <unk> <unk> <unk> with remarkable <unk> , and <unk> . This is a highly <unk> transformation , and similar reactivity and <unk> is seldom rivaled , especially considering the <unk> nature of the <unk> . <unk> <unk> show high selectivity toward tertiary <unk> . <unk> of primary <unk> and <unk> of a compound with two <unk> sites have never been observed . <unk> of <unk> is very high , often 95 - 98 % . ( <unk> of <unk> may be further enhanced by the addition of a fluoride salt ) . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> transfer = = = \n', '', ' <unk> with <unk> or <unk> <unk> are capable of nitrogen atom transfer , although this reactivity has received considerably less attention . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> of N @-@ <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> of <unk> with N @-@ <unk> <unk> is quite versatile in the breadth of possible <unk> and corresponding products . <unk> may be derived from the <unk> of secondary or tertiary <unk> , <unk> and <unk> may be formed from their corresponding <unk> and <unk> , <unk> may be formed from <unk> and α @-@ <unk> may be formed by attack of corresponding <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = = N @-@ <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' The transfer of <unk> <unk> is more difficult than that of <unk> <unk> , although , unlike amine transfer by <unk> , there are no alternative methods that directly transfer <unk> <unk> . <unk> transfer has primarily been performed using <unk> and <unk> as <unk> . Very few transfers of <unk> <unk> to carbon <unk> have been successfully performed , although some do exist in the literature . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> have been found to undergo <unk> reactions via a radical mechanism when <unk> with <unk> light or in the presence of a single electron transfer reagent such as <unk> <unk> <unk> undergo ring expansions to the corresponding <unk> . <unk> , the migrating <unk> is determined by a <unk> effect where the group trans to the lone pair on the nitrogen will always be the predominant migration product . In light of this effect , it is possible to take advantage of the <unk> nitrogen due to high <unk> barrier to direct the <unk> . This phenomenon is demonstrated by observed <unk> in the <unk> below . In the <unk> on the left the <unk> unfavorable product is observed exclusively , while in the reaction on the right the product derived from the less stable radical intermediate is favored . \n', ' <unk> takes advantage of this <unk> as the key step in his synthesis of ( + ) <unk> , a natural medicine classified by the <unk> as possibly effective in the treatment of <unk> <unk> and the sexual problems caused by selective <unk> <unk> inhibitors . \n', ' It is also notable that <unk> will <unk> <unk> to <unk> . <unk> @-@ trans selectivity of the resulting <unk> is poor , however , yields are good to excellent . It is thought that some <unk> <unk> over time through a <unk> intermediate . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> with <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> undergo <unk> reactions with <unk> to afford a number of unique five membered <unk> , as depicted in the figure below . This reactivity is due to the strained three membered ring and weak N @-@ O bond . \n', '', '', ' = Battle of <unk> = \n', '', ' The Battle of <unk> ( also known as the Battle of <unk> , Battle of <unk> and Battle of <unk> ; German : <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , on 11 November 1805 was an engagement in the Napoleonic Wars during the War of the Third Coalition . <unk> ( modern <unk> ) is located in the <unk> Valley , on the River <unk> , 73 kilometers ( 45 mi ) upstream from Vienna , Austria . The river makes a crescent @-@ shaped curve between <unk> and nearby <unk> an der <unk> and the battle was fought in the flood plain between the river and the mountains . \n', " At <unk> a combined force of Russian and Austrian troops trapped a French division commanded by <unk> <unk> <unk> . The French division was part of the newly created VIII Corps , the so @-@ called Corps <unk> , under command of <unk> <unk> . In pursuing the Austrian retreat from <unk> , <unk> had over @-@ extended his three divisions along the north bank of the <unk> . Mikhail <unk> <unk> , commander of the Coalition force , <unk> <unk> to send <unk> 's division into a trap and French troops were caught in a valley between two Russian columns . They were rescued by the timely arrival of a second division , under command of Pierre <unk> de l <unk> . The battle extended well into the night . Both sides claimed victory . The French lost more than a third of their participants , and <unk> 's division experienced over 40 percent losses . The Austrians and Russians also had heavy <unk> to 16 <unk> perhaps the most significant was the death in action of Johann Heinrich von <unk> , one of Austria 's most capable chiefs of staff . \n", ' The battle was fought three weeks after the Austrian capitulation at Ulm and three weeks before the Russo @-@ Austrian defeat at the Battle of <unk> . After <unk> Austria withdrew from the war . The French demanded a high indemnity and Francis II abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor , releasing the German states from their allegiance to the Holy Roman Empire . \n', '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', " In a series of conflicts from 1803 @-@ 15 known as the Napoleonic Wars , various European powers formed five coalitions against the First French Empire . Like the wars sparked by the French Revolution ( 1789 ) , these further revolutionized the formation , organization and training of European armies and led to an unprecedented <unk> , mainly due to mass conscription . Under the leadership of Napoleon , French power rose quickly as the Grande <unk> conquered most of Europe , and collapsed rapidly after the disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 . Napoleon 's empire ultimately suffered complete military defeat in the 1813 – 14 campaigns , resulting in the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France . Although Napoleon made a spectacular return in 1815 , known as the Hundred Days , his defeat at the Battle of Waterloo , the pursuit of his army and himself , his abdication and banishment to the Island of Saint Helena concluded the Napoleonic Wars . \n", '', ' = = <unk> campaign = = \n', '', ' From 1803 @-@ 06 the Third Coalition fought the First French Empire and its client states ( see table at right ) . Although several naval battles determined control of the seas , the outcome of the war was decided on the continent , predominantly in two major land operations in the <unk> valley : the Ulm campaign in the upper <unk> and the Vienna campaign , in the middle <unk> valley . \n', " Political conflicts in Vienna delayed Austria 's entry into the Third Coalition until 1805 . After hostilities of the War of the Second Coalition ended in 1801 , <unk> <unk> emperor 's <unk> advantage of the subsequent years of peace to develop a military restructuring plan . He carefully put this plan into effect beginning in 1803 – 04 , but implementation was incomplete in 1805 when Karl Mack , Lieutenant Field Marshal and <unk> @-@ General of the Army , implemented his own restructuring . Mack bypassed Charles ' methodical approach . <unk> in the field , Mack 's plan also undermined the overall command and <unk> structure . Regardless , Mack sent an enthusiastic report to Vienna on the military 's readiness . Furthermore , after <unk> Napoleon 's maneuvers in <unk> , Mack also reported to Vienna on the weakness of French <unk> . His reports convinced the war party advising the emperor , Francis II , to enter the conflict against France , despite Charles ' own advice to the contrary . Responding to the report and rampant anti @-@ French fever in Vienna , Francis dismissed Charles from his post as <unk> and appointed his <unk> brother @-@ in @-@ law , <unk> Ferdinand , as commander . \n", ' The inexperienced Ferdinand was a poor choice of replacement for the capable Charles , having neither maturity nor aptitude for the assignment . Although Ferdinand retained nominal command , day @-@ to @-@ day decisions were placed in the hands of Mack , equally ill @-@ suited for such an important assignment . When Mack was wounded early in the campaign , he was unable to take full charge of the army . Consequently , command further devolved to Lieutenant Field Marshal Karl Philipp , Prince of <unk> , an able cavalry officer but inexperienced in the command of such a large army . \n', '', ' = = = Road to Ulm = = = \n', '', " The campaign in the upper <unk> valley began in October , with several clashes in <unk> . Near the Bavarian town of <unk> , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) northwest of <unk> , on 8 October the 1st Regiment of <unk> , part of <unk> 's Reserve Cavalry Corps , and grenadiers of <unk> ' V Corps surprised an Austrian force half its size . The Austrians were <unk> in a line and unable to form their defensive squares quickly enough to protect themselves from the 4 @,@ 000 <unk> and 8 @,@ 000 grenadiers . Nearly 3 @,@ 000 Austrians were captured and over 400 were killed or wounded . A day later , at another small town , <unk> south of the <unk> <unk> French 59th Regiment of the Line stormed a bridge over the <unk> and , <unk> , chased two large Austrian columns toward Ulm . \n", " The campaign was not entirely bad news for Vienna . At <unk> , Johann von <unk> arranged his 25 @,@ 000 infantry and cavalry in a prime defensive position and , on 11 October , the overly confident General of Division Pierre <unk> de l <unk> attacked <unk> 's force with fewer than 8 @,@ 000 men . The French lost 1 @,@ 500 men killed and wounded . Aside from taking the Imperial Eagles and <unk> of the 15th and 17th <unk> , <unk> 's force also captured 900 men , 11 guns and 18 ammunition wagons . \n", " <unk> 's victory was a singular success . On 14 October Mack sent two columns out of Ulm in preparation for a breakout to the north : one under Johann <unk> <unk> headed toward <unk> to secure the bridge there , and the other under Franz von <unk> went north with most of the heavy artillery . <unk> the opportunity , Marshal Michel <unk> <unk> the rest of his VI Corps forward to re @-@ establish contact with <unk> , who was still north of the <unk> . In a two @-@ <unk> attack <unk> sent one division to the south of <unk> on the right bank of the <unk> . This division began the assault at <unk> . At the same time another division crossed the river to the east and moved west against <unk> 's position . After clearing Austrian <unk> from a bridge , the French attacked and captured a strategically located <unk> at the top of the hill at bayonet point . The Austrian cavalry unsuccessfully tried to fend off the French , but the Austrian infantry broke and ran . In this engagement alone , the Austrians lost more than half their reserve artillery park , 6 @,@ 000 ( out of 8 @,@ 000 total participants ) dead , wounded or captured and four colors . <unk> 's column also failed to destroy the bridges across the <unk> . \n", " Napoleon 's lightning campaign exposed the Austrian <unk> command structure and poor supply apparatus . Mack completely <unk> the French <unk> and scattered his forces ; as the French defeated each unit separately , the surviving Austrians withdrew toward the Ulm fortifications . Napoleon arrived to take personal command of close to 80 @,@ 000 men . At Ulm on 16 October Karl Mack surrendered his <unk> army of 20 @,@ 000 infantry and 3 @,@ 273 cavalry . The officers were released on the condition that they not serve against France until formally exchanged for French officers captured by the Austrians , an agreement to which they held . \n", '', ' = = Prelude to battle = = \n', '', ' The few Austrian corps not trapped at Ulm withdrew toward Vienna , with the French in close pursuit . A Russian army under Gen. Mikhail <unk> also <unk> away from the French , withdrawing to the east . At the <unk> river on 22 October it joined with the retreating Austrian corps commanded by Michael von <unk> . On 5 November the Coalition forces held a successful rearguard action in <unk> . On 7 November the Russians arrived in St. <unk> and crossed the <unk> river the next day . Late on 9 November they destroyed the bridges across the <unk> , holding the last one at the hamlet of Stein , near the village <unk> , until the late afternoon . \n', '', ' = = = Battlefield = = = \n', '', " To the east of Stein , 2 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) down an old road , lay <unk> , with its small population of a few hundred , at the confluence of the stream of that name and the <unk> . To the west of Stein the <unk> made a large curve , creating a crescent @-@ shaped floodplain between it and the mountains . At the far western end of the floodplain , where the mountains came down almost to the river 's edge , was <unk> with its castle , known as <unk> <unk> . The castle had served as a prison for Richard I of England in <unk> . In 1645 – 46 , during the Thirty Years War , the Swedes had fortified the castle and then demolished it when they withdrew . It stands at 159 meters ( 522 ft ) , on the highest ridge of a mountain <unk> with <unk> and pinnacles of granite . Because the mountain was sparsely <unk> , it was difficult to distinguish the ruins from the rocks . <unk> canyons cut through the mountain , and widen into the plain below . Between <unk> and Stein , on the flood plain , lay the hamlets of <unk> and <unk> . Near the hamlets , the <unk> flood plain was at its <unk> , extending at the most 762 meters ( 2 @,@ 500 ft ) from the base of the <unk> mountain to the bank of the river . \n", " The region was known for its wine . Since the 15th century the local inhabitants practiced <unk> and the wine producers formed St. Paul <unk> ' Guild in <unk> , the oldest such guild in the German @-@ speaking world . <unk> vineyards extended up the sides of the <unk> River until it became a mountain stream and terrain was unsuitable for cultivation . The <unk> plain supported both <unk> and agriculture . As the terrain became <unk> , the vines grew in terraces built from the dark <unk> , primordial rock . From <unk> to <unk> the river makes its wide curve ; the mountains and the steeply terraced slopes prevent clear line @-@ of @-@ sight between the two towns . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' Napoleon had calculated that <unk> would withdraw toward Vienna , expecting reinforcements from Russia ; he envisioned that the armies would engage in a great battle at Vienna , and that this battle would decide the war . Consequently , Napoleon drew divisions from four of the other seven corps of the Grande <unk> to create a new VIII Corps . This corps was to secure the north shore of the <unk> , block any of the Austrian or Russian groups from reinforcing one another and , more importantly , prevent <unk> from crossing the river and escaping to Russia . \n', " The new VIII Corps , under the overall command of <unk> <unk> , included three infantry divisions and a division of cavalry ( see Order of Battle below ) . Corps <unk> , as it was known , crossed the <unk> at <unk> and <unk> in early November 1805 and marched east , on the north bank of the <unk> . Operating independently , the <unk> 's cavalry conducted reconnaissance ahead of them and on the flanks . Gen. <unk> 's division ( about 6 @,@ 000 men ) took the lead ; <unk> was with them . They were followed by Gen. <unk> 's division ( another 4 @,@ 000 ) about one day 's march behind . Jean @-@ Baptiste <unk> 's division ( another 4 @,@ 000 ) , marching another day behind <unk> , brought up the rear . A flotilla of 50 boats acquired at <unk> provided communications across the <unk> . Before sending <unk> on his mission , Napoleon instructed him to protect his north flank at all times against possible Russian reinforcements , advice he reiterated in subsequent written orders . Napoleon also advised <unk> to secure all <unk> of the <unk> between <unk> and Vienna . \n", " On 9 November <unk> 's division reached <unk> an der <unk> and covered the 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) to <unk> by early on the following afternoon . Here it <unk> with some Russian patrols to the east of the town and expelled them . Feeling confident , the French established a forward post just upstream from Stein . In <unk> itself <unk> set up his command post and directed the establishment of a small field hospital . Although the position seemed secure , he had ignored Napoleon 's strict instructions and neglected to protect his left ( north ) flank . \n", ' This failure was an important factor when <unk> lost his corps \' so @-@ called " eyes " : after he and <unk> had crossed the <unk> , the French <unk> had <unk> to the northwest , leaving only three squadrons of the 4th <unk> available for reconnaissance . These had left the division and were operating independently of <unk> \'s command . Consequently , <unk> and <unk> marched <unk> through the narrow canyon west of <unk> , not knowing what lay ahead of them . <unk> had led the Coalition army across the <unk> at <unk> , a short distance past Stein , and destroyed the bridge behind him . His actions deprived the French commanders of a possible route across the <unk> , putting the deployment of the entire French division at further risk in the case of retreat . In this decision <unk> abandoned Vienna to the French , who were <unk> on the Austrian capital from the north , west and southwest , for the security of uniting with reinforcements from <unk> . <unk> chose a military solution over a political one . \n', " Unknown to either <unk> or <unk> , the Coalition had concentrated a force of approximately 24 @,@ 000 men ( mostly Russians and a few Austrians ) within a few kilometers of the French position at <unk> . In comparison , <unk> 's division had only 6 @,@ 000 men . The Austro @-@ Russian force was a mixture of infantry , <unk> ( usually deployed as <unk> ) , Russian <unk> and Russian and Austrian cavalry , accompanied by more than 68 artillery pieces . <unk> , who had learned the military arts under the tutelage of the legendary Russian <unk> <unk> , had overall command . The Russian cavalry , units of the greatly feared Cossacks , were well @-@ suited for patrolling the river bank ; indeed , on 9 November they had taken 40 French soldiers as prisoners . Furthermore , reinforcements stood in Moravia , less than two weeks ' march away . If the main body of the French army crossed the river , they would require time to prepare . <unk> would have ample warning of any large @-@ scale French movement . \n", " After the afternoon 's initial <unk> with the French , <unk> held a council of war on the evening of 10 November at <unk> , at the great <unk> there . He knew several things . First , he knew the positions of the French from prisoners his Cossacks had captured . He also knew that <unk> had crossed at <unk> and was well ahead of any French reinforcements : <unk> had crossed at <unk> and , by 10 November , stood at <unk> , 50 kilometers ( 31 mi ) upstream , and <unk> was another 7 kilometers ( 4 mi ) further behind him . <unk> knew the size of the French <unk> division <unk> its positions , and he knew that most of the <unk> were not covering the French flank but had turned north . He also knew , or had made a good <unk> , about Napoleon 's orders , so he knew what to offer <unk> and <unk> as bait . \n", '', ' = = = Battle plan = = = \n', '', " In addition to the Russian generals , the council included Austrian commanders Lieutenant Field Marshal Johann Heinrich von <unk> and Friedrich Karl Wilhelm , <unk> <unk> <unk> . <unk> , who had retired from the military in 1800 , had been recalled into service after the Ulm <unk> and had come to <unk> highly recommended by the Emperor . He was an experienced <unk> and strategist and had served in a variety of posts in the Habsburg military ; he had been <unk> Charles ' trusted adviser during the campaigns from 1796 to 1800 and had assisted in planning several of Charles ' victories . Upon his recall , <unk> was appointed Chief of the <unk> General Staff of the Coalition Army . The generals had found among the Austrian force one <unk> Christoph Freiherr von <unk> ( 1753 – 1824 ) , who had knowledge of the local geography . \n", " Together , <unk> , <unk> and the other generals , with von <unk> 's advice on the local terrain , <unk> a plan to encircle the French at <unk> . Russian commander Mikhail <unk> <unk> would approach <unk> 's division from the east , supported by <unk> <unk> 's corps , and pin the French in place . Three additional columns , commanded by <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , <unk> Gen. <unk> and <unk> , would outflank the French from the west and the north . They would offer , as bait , a rumor : the Russian army was retreating into Moravia and only a rearguard would be left at <unk> . \n", '', ' = = Battle = = \n', '', " On the night of 10 – 11 November a Russian column under <unk> 's command began its passage through the narrow canyons , intent on arriving at <unk> by noon ; two more columns , under <unk> and <unk> , moved in wider <unk> , planning to pass through the mountains and attack the French , who were extended along the river bank . According to the plan , in late morning <unk> 's column would emerge from the mountains first and launch a flanking assault on the French right . This flanking attack , combined with <unk> 's frontal assault from Stein , would force the French into a <unk> ; <unk> , they would have no option but to <unk> die . To ensure the success of the plan , the second and third columns , under <unk> and <unk> , would arrive in early and mid @-@ afternoon and support the earlier assaults . In this way , even if the French tried to retreat west to <unk> , they would not escape the <unk> @-@ like grip of the Coalition army . \n", " <unk> accepted the bait of a <unk> Russian retreat . In the early morning of 11 November he and <unk> departed from <unk> to seize Stein and <unk> , <unk> the Russians had either abandoned the settlements or left only a small rear @-@ guard behind . As they approached Stein , a column of <unk> 's troops attacked the French forward positions . <unk> this force was the <unk> Russian rear guard , <unk> ordered Gen. <unk> to counterattack and push east towards the town of Stein . Fighting spread though the villages of <unk> , <unk> and the farm at <unk> . Instead of withdrawing , as a rear guard would , more and more Russian troops appeared and engaged the French column . \n", " Initially <unk> made rapid progress , but he quickly recognized that the opposing force was much stronger than the typical rear guard of a retreating army . Realizing he had been <unk> and that <unk> 's troops were tiring rapidly , <unk> sent orders to <unk> 's division to <unk> forward . By mid @-@ morning the French momentum had stalled ; <unk> committed most of his remaining forces to driving <unk> back , leaving a single <unk> 300 <unk> cover his northern flank , and sent the rest to attack the Russian right . Within 30 minutes he achieved the superiority of numbers he sought . His 4 @,@ 500 French opposed 2 @,@ 600 Russians and forced them back toward Stein while pressing an attack along the river . <unk> had no option , for neither <unk> 's nor <unk> 's flanking columns were to be seen . \n", " At this stage of the battle fighting paused . <unk> and <unk> waited for <unk> 's arrival while <unk> and <unk> waited for <unk> 's and <unk> 's . <unk> 's column was expected to be the last to join the fight because it had to march the greatest distance . The timing of the respite varies , depending on whose reports are consulted : fighting paused at around 12 : 00 or 14 : 00 . <unk> arrived first and immediately assaulted <unk> 's line with three battalions , pushing the French out of <unk> . Caught between two strong forces , <unk> attempted to push his way back through <unk> , to reach the river where the flotilla could evacuate his exhausted troops . <unk> through the narrow <unk> canyon and fighting off the Russian force at their rear , <unk> and his division were trapped when more of <unk> 's Russians appeared to block their retreat . The narrow <unk> hampered the Russians ; <unk> 's men had to march out of the canyons , form ranks and attack in waves . Despite <unk> 's continuous assault in the next two to three hours , <unk> and <unk> pushed the Russians back up the narrow <unk> in the hillside . At this point , <unk> 's column appeared behind the French line and joined the battle . The French were outnumbered more than three to one , assaulted in the front by <unk> 's column , in the middle by <unk> 's and in the rear by <unk> . \n", " Earlier in the morning <unk> had proceeded with his column south and east along the river , from <unk> , according to instructions . Even before the arrival of <unk> 's <unk> , he heard the sound of artillery in the distance and sent riders ahead to discover the cause . They came back to report that a Russian column ( <unk> 's ) was descending from the mountains to take the road to <unk> . Realizing this would separate him from the forward division , <unk> <unk> his troops toward the sound of battle and deployed them to take the Russians in the flank . The French assault , heralded by cannon fire , caused <unk> 's troops to turn their attention from <unk> 's <unk> force to face these new <unk> . Although superior in numbers , <unk> 's column had no supporting artillery , and the narrow space prevented them from taking advantage of their size . It was <unk> 's turn to face attackers at his front and rear , until the arrival of <unk> 's column , which had <unk> its way through the mountains in the west . \n", " <unk> arrived at dusk , and the action continued well after dark ; in mid @-@ November night falls at close to 17 : 00 in the upper <unk> <unk> . Despite the darkness , <unk> descended out of the <unk> and deployed his troops to <unk> <unk> 's flank . As his Russians entered the <unk> , they came between a battalion of French and another of Russians . With the additional force , the French were overwhelmed , but most of the shooting subsided when the combatants could not tell apart friend from <unk> in the dark . Under the cover of darkness , <unk> used the French flotilla to evacuate his exhausted troops to the south bank . The French and Russians continued to <unk> <unk> into the night as <unk> encountered one another in the dark . <unk> of <unk> 's force provided any necessary rear guard action , and the following morning the remaining men were evacuated from the north shore of the <unk> , while they maintained possession of only <unk> and <unk> on the north bank . \n", '', ' = = = Losses = = = \n', '', ' The losses were <unk> : <unk> lost close to 40 percent of his division to death and wounds . Aside from losing five guns , 47 officers and 895 men under his command were captured , bringing the loss of <unk> closer to 60 percent ; furthermore , he lost the eagles of the 4th Infantry Regiment ( France ) and the eagle and <unk> of the 4th <unk> . The Russians lost around 4 @,@ 000 , about 16 percent of their force , and two regimental colors . The Austrian Lieutenant Field Marshal <unk> was killed as the battle concluded , probably by Russian <unk> in the confused melee . The vineyards and the villages of <unk> and <unk> were destroyed , as was most of <unk> and Stein . <unk> was heavily damaged ; the French plundered the town at least twice , and " <unk> handled " its inhabitants . \n', '', ' = = Aftermath = = \n', '', ' Both sides claimed victory . Although losses were fairly equal in terms of <unk> wounded or dead on each <unk> Coalition forces went into battle with 24 @,@ 000 men while the French started with <unk> \'s division of about 6 @,@ 000 , which grew close to 8 @,@ 000 when <unk> \'s men joined the fighting in the afternoon . Regardless , <unk> \'s division was nearly destroyed ; the 30 percent losses experienced by the French fell predominantly on his division . <unk> for both sides , the fighting was hard . The weather had been cold ; an early storm had left slick icy mud in the roadways , and <unk> " like chandeliers " hung from the trees . \n', ' For the Coalition , the Russians were secure on the north bank of the <unk> , awaiting reinforcements from <unk> ; the bridges between <unk> and Vienna had been destroyed , making French access to the Austrian capital more difficult , but not impossible . After six months of fighting in which the Austrians had enjoyed little good news , the Coalition could claim a difficult and timely victory . The French had retreated from the field with a badly <unk> division and <unk> had secured the right flank . Indeed , Francis was so pleased with the outcome at <unk> that he awarded <unk> the Military Order of Maria <unk> . \n', ' For the French , the survival of the Corps <unk> seemed nothing short of a miracle . The remainder of <unk> \'s division crossed the river the next morning and eventually <unk> in Vienna , which the French acquired by deception later in the month . More importantly for them , the French force had performed well over difficult terrain and under terrible combat conditions . Initially there had been some panic and parts of at least one French battalion had tried to escape on the flotilla craft . They had lost control of the boats in the current and smashed into the pillars of the burned bridge at <unk> , <unk> their boats . <unk> into the icy river , most had drowned . Despite this initial panic , <unk> \'s column retained its cohesion , and responded well to various difficult demands . <unk> had demonstrated his tactical <unk> : when he heard cannon fire , he directed his troops toward it to support the French division . In terms of French staffing , <unk> \'s failure to guard his flank , especially in the face of Napoleon \'s direct advice , adversely influenced his relationship with his commander . However , in the immediate weeks ahead , the flamboyant <unk> did more to annoy Napoleon than <unk> had . In assessing the battle and its aftermath , historians have laid the blame and credit for its outcome not only on <unk> and <unk> : " Napoleon , aware of <unk> \'s danger and his own <unk> for it , vented his frustration on <unk> , whom he unjustly accused of abandoning <unk> for the empty glory of riding through Vienna . " \n', ' After the victory at <unk> , Napoleon dispersed the VIII Corps and reassigned <unk> . However disappointed he may have been with <unk> , Napoleon was pleased with <unk> \'s performance . As recognition of his conduct in what the French called " the immortal Battle of <unk> " , <unk> received the Officer \'s Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor . \n', " The loss of <unk> was a significant blow to the Austrian military organization . Called out of retirement for this specific task , he was one of their most experienced general staff officers , other than the <unk> Charles . From the summer of 1796 until his retirement in 1800 he had been Chief of the <unk> General Staff of the Army , the Lower Rhine , the Rhine and the Army of Germany . Furthermore , he was a trusted member of <unk> Charles ' staff . He had helped to design several of Charles ' more important victories at <unk> , <unk> , the <unk> at <unk> and <unk> , the battles at <unk> and <unk> , and the northern Swiss Campaign of <unk> that included battles at <unk> and <unk> . An experienced officer and excellent <unk> , he might well have made a more effective Chief of the <unk> General Staff of the Coalition Army at the Battle of <unk> than his eventual replacement , Franz von <unk> . In <unk> 's absence <unk> , the architect of the Austrian catastrophe at <unk> in 1800 , was chosen to develop the general battle plan of Coalition action at <unk> . <unk> , undoubtedly a far better <unk> than <unk> , and possessed of superior training and mapping skills , would have developed a more realistic Coalition plan for <unk> . <unk> 's presence would probably not have been enough to turn that defeat into a victory , but it would have <unk> the magnitude of the Coalition 's losses ; <unk> was considered one of Napoleon 's finest <unk> . \n", " In the broader picture , despite the important major naval engagements , the outcome of the War of the Third Coalition was determined on the Continent , predominantly in the two major land operations . In the Ulm campaign , the Habsburgs achieved some minor victories , such as <unk> 's at <unk> @-@ <unk> , but ultimately lost an entire army and an officer corps . The latter would not resume arms against France until formally exchanged . This condition crippled the Austrian military leadership and forced the recall of such pensioners as <unk> out of retirement . After the capitulation at Ulm , isolated portions of the Austrian military <unk> capture and joined with their Russian allies ; Michael von <unk> 's corps slipped out of the <unk> and joined <unk> 's force . A few other small forces refused to <unk> and seemingly melted into the Bavarian mountains and the <unk> forests , to reappear in Bohemia for <unk> . Sixteen hundred cavalry , including <unk> Ferdinand and Prince <unk> , broke out of Ulm before its capitulation . Maximilian , Count of <unk> , led his column back through the mountains into Austria , fighting rear guard actions against pursuing French forces at the <unk> ( <unk> ) and <unk> . These elusive units were insufficient to balance heavy losses at key battles in which the Austrians could not hold their own against the French . Between the Ulm capitulation and the Austrian and Russian defeat at <unk> , there were other minor achievements : a successful <unk> between the cavalry that escaped from Ulm and the French near the town of <unk> , the contested victory at <unk> , and another within days at <unk> . \n", " The second determining event , the decisive French victory at the Battle of <unk> over the combined Russian and Austrian armies , forced the Austrian withdrawal from the Coalition . The subsequent Peace of <unk> , signed on 26 December 1805 , reinforced the earlier treaties of <unk> <unk> and <unk> . Furthermore , Austria ceded land to Napoleon 's German allies , and paid an indemnity of 40 million francs . Victory at <unk> also gave Napoleon the latitude to create a <unk> zone of German states between France and the states of Prussia , Russia , and Austria . These measures did not establish a lasting peace on the continent . Prussian worries about growing French influence in Central Europe sparked the War of the Fourth Coalition in 1806 , in which Austria did not participate . \n", '', ' = = Battlefield <unk> = = \n', '', ' Until 1805 , <unk> was probably best known as the village in which crusader Richard the <unk> was held by Leopold V , Duke of Austria . In 1741 , during the War of the Austrian <unk> , several hundred local villagers had held off the French and Bavarian armies , intent on capturing Vienna , by painting drain pipes to look like cannons , and beating on drums , thus suggesting the presence of a large force . \n', " After 1805 , the exploits of 40 @,@ 000 French , Russian , and Austrian soldiers excited the European imagination . General <unk> 's grave has never been found , but in 1811 a monument for him was erected at the Stein Tor , the gate leading from the old village of <unk> to the hamlet of Stein . The house in which Captain von <unk> lived was marked with a bronze plate commemorating his contribution to the battle . In 1840 , a Spanish <unk> created an image of the battle , which was later expanded by English <unk> John <unk> . The image depicts the evacuation of French troops via the <unk> flotilla ( see <unk> image ) on a <unk> night . In fact , the moon was in its last quarter phase 48 hours later , and on 11 November probably did not provide as much light as depicted in the image . \n", ' In 1836 , Jean Antoine <unk> Fort ( French , 1793 – 1861 ) , a historical painter , created a <unk> of the battle , Combat de <unk> le 11 <unk> 1805 ( ( English ) Battle of <unk> of 11 November 1805 ) , which is in the <unk> collection at Versailles . \n', ' In the Russian novel War and Peace , Leo <unk> devoted several pages to the battle , its prelude , and its aftermath , and the delivery of its news to the Tsar by Prince Andrew . Between <unk> and <unk> , at the edge of the <unk> plain , stands the " Little Frenchman " memorial ( see image ) erected in 1905 to commemorate the battle ; it bears the names of <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and others on a copper @-@ engraved plate . \n', '', ' = = Orders of battle = = \n', '', '', ' = = = French VIII . Corps ( Corps <unk> ) = = = \n', '', ' On 6 November , <unk> Adolphe <unk> commanded the following forces : \n', ' 1st Division under command of Pierre <unk> de l <unk> ( formerly 1st Division of VI . Corps ) , six battalions , three squadrons , and three guns , most of which were involved in the fighting after mid @-@ day . \n', ' 2nd Division under command of <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> de la <unk> ( formerly 2nd Division of the V. Corps ) , nine battalions , three squadrons , three guns . \n', ' 3rd Division under command of Jean @-@ Baptiste <unk> ( <unk> Division , formerly 3rd Division of the II . Corps ) . The 3rd Division was not involved in the fighting . \n', " Dragoon Division under command of Louis Klein . Klein 's division included the 1st , 2nd , 4th , and 14th Regiments of <unk> . They were not involved in the fighting . \n", ' <unk> fleet of fifty boats , under the command of Frigate Captain <unk> . \n', ' Total : fifteen battalions , six squadrons , six guns , approximately 12 @,@ 000 men , not all of which were involved in the fighting . \n', '', ' = = = Coalition columns = = = \n', '', ' First Column , commanded by General of Brigade Prince <unk> <unk> <unk> , included three battalions of infantry , three <unk> battalions , and three <unk> battalions , ten squadrons of Hussars . \n', ' Second Column , Lieutenant General <unk> , included six battalions of infantry , three battalions of grenadiers , and five squadrons of Hussars . \n', ' Third Column , commanded by Lieutenant General <unk> , including six battalions of infantry , one battalion from the 8th <unk> regiment , and ten squadrons of the <unk> Regiment <unk> . \n', ' Fourth Column , commanded by Lieutenant General <unk> , nine battalions of infantry . \n', ' Fifth Column , Lieutenant General Freiherr von <unk> , nine battalions of infantry . \n', ' Sixth Column , Lieutenant General Freiherr von Rosen , with six battalions of Infantry and ten squadrons of cavalry . The Sixth Column did not take part in the fighting . \n', ' Austrian Infantry Brigade , Major General Johann <unk> von <unk> @-@ <unk> , four battalions of Border Infantry , including the highly decorated 9th Regiment <unk> . \n', ' Austrian Cavalry Division , Lieutenant Field Marshal Friedrich Karl Wilhelm , <unk> <unk> <unk> , twenty @-@ two squadrons of cavalry . \n', ' Total : fifty @-@ eight battalions , sixty @-@ two squadrons , fourteen artillery batteries , approximately 24 @,@ 000 men and 168 guns . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> Edward <unk> / <unk> / ( born July 12 , 1977 ) is an American Canadian professional wrestler , mixed martial artist , and former amateur wrestler and professional American football player . He is currently signed to WWE on the Raw brand . He is a four @-@ time WWE ( World Heavyweight ) Champion , a former <unk> Heavyweight Champion , and an NCAA Division I Heavyweight Wrestling Champion . He is also a one @-@ time <unk> Heavyweight Champion , making him a five @-@ time world champion in professional wrestling . As of July 14 , 2016 , he is # 8 in official <unk> heavyweight rankings . \n', " After his successful amateur wrestling career at Bismarck State College and the University of Minnesota ( 106 wins and 5 losses ) , <unk> signed with WWE ( then the World Wrestling Federation ) in 2000 . He was assigned to its developmental promotion Ohio Valley Wrestling ( <unk> ) , where he was a three @-@ time <unk> Southern Tag Team Champion with Shelton Benjamin . After debuting on WWE 's main roster in 2002 , he won the WWE Championship on three separate occasions with victories over The Rock and Kurt Angle ( twice ) . <unk> won his first WWE <unk> Championship five months after his main roster debut at the age of 25 , becoming the youngest champion in the title 's history . He was also the 2002 King of the Ring and the 2003 Royal Rumble winner , making him the youngest King of the Ring and Royal Rumble winner as well . Following his match with Goldberg at WrestleMania <unk> , <unk> left the WWE and pursued a career in the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was named a defensive tackle for the Minnesota Vikings but was cut prior to the start of the 2004 – 05 season . In 2005 , <unk> returned to professional wrestling and signed with New Japan Pro Wrestling ( <unk> ) , where he won the <unk> Heavyweight Championship in his first match . After a contractual dispute with <unk> , he also wrestled as <unk> Heavyweight Champion in the <unk> <unk> Federation ( <unk> ) . \n", " In 2006 , <unk> pursued a career in mixed martial arts . He signed with Hero 's and won his first fight , against <unk> @-@ <unk> Kim , in June 2007 . He then signed with the Ultimate Fighting Championship ( <unk> ) the following October . <unk> lost in his <unk> debut against Frank <unk> and then won his second fight against Heath <unk> . In November 2008 , <unk> defeated Randy <unk> to become the <unk> Heavyweight Champion . Shortly after a successful title defense in a rematch with <unk> , <unk> was sidelined due to <unk> . He would return at <unk> 116 to defeat Interim <unk> Heavyweight Champion Shane <unk> and <unk> the heavyweight championships , becoming the <unk> Heavyweight Champion . <unk> then lost the championship to Cain <unk> at <unk> 121 . In 2011 , he was once again sidelined due to <unk> and underwent surgery . <unk> returned at <unk> 141 in December , losing to <unk> <unk> and promptly retiring from <unk> . <unk> was a box office sensation in <unk> . He took part in a few of the best selling pay @-@ per @-@ views in <unk> history , including <unk> 100 and <unk> 200 . \n", ' In April 2012 , <unk> once again returned to professional wrestling , rejoining WWE after an eight @-@ year hiatus . Two years later , at WrestleMania XXX , <unk> defeated The Undertaker to end his undefeated streak at the premier annual event . <unk> has been managed by Paul <unk> throughout the majority of his professional wrestling career . He has <unk> numerous pay @-@ per @-@ view events for both the WWE and <unk> , including WrestleMania <unk> , WrestleMania 31 , <unk> 100 , and <unk> 116 . In 2015 , an ESPN.com article referred to <unk> as " the most accomplished athlete in pro wrestling history " . \n', '', ' = = Early life = = \n', '', ' <unk> was born in Webster , South Dakota , on July 12 , 1977 . He was raised on a Webster dairy farm owned by his parents , Stephanie and Richard <unk> . He is of German descent . He has two older brothers named Troy and Chad , and a younger sister named <unk> . At age 17 , he joined the National Guard , where he was assigned to an office job after his red @-@ green <unk> was deemed hazardous to his desire to work with explosives . He lost this job after failing a computer typing test , and later worked for a construction company . \n', ' <unk> attended Webster High School , where he played football and competed in amateur wrestling , placing third in the state championships his senior year . He then attended Bismarck State College , where he won the National Junior College Athletic Association ( <unk> ) heavyweight wrestling championship in his sophomore year . He transferred to the University of Minnesota on a wrestling scholarship for his junior and senior college years . There , he was roommates with future WWE colleague Shelton Benjamin , who was also his assistant coach . \n', ' <unk> won the 2000 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I heavyweight wrestling championship his senior year after being the runner @-@ up to Stephen Neal the year prior . He finished his amateur career as a two @-@ time <unk> All @-@ American , the 1998 <unk> Heavyweight Champion , two @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American , two @-@ time Big Ten Conference Champion , and the 2000 NCAA Heavyweight Champion , with a record of 106 – 5 overall in four years of college . \n', '', ' = = Professional wrestling career = = \n', '', '', ' = = = World Wrestling Federation / Entertainment = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = Training and debut ( 2000 – 2002 ) = = = = \n', '', ' In 2000 , <unk> signed with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . He was sent to its developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling . There , <unk> first met future friend and manager Paul <unk> . He formed a tag team known as " The Minnesota <unk> Crew " with his former college roommate , Shelton Benjamin . <unk> and Benjamin won the <unk> Southern Tag Team Championship on three separate occasions . <unk> wrestled several dark matches in 2001 and 2002 before being called up to the main roster . \n', ' <unk> debuted on WWF television on the March 18 , 2002 , episode of Raw , coming through the crowd and attacking Al Snow , <unk> and Spike Dudley during their match . He was accompanied by Paul <unk> , who was seen giving instructions to <unk> . When the brand extension was introduced in the WWF , <unk> was drafted to the Raw brand . Later , <unk> was confirmed to be <unk> \'s agent and gave <unk> the nickname " The Next Big Thing " . <unk> \'s first feud was with the Hardy Boyz . <unk> and Jeff Hardy <unk> off at <unk> in <unk> \'s first official televised match . He won the match by knockout after Hardy was unable to respond to referee Theodore Long . The next night on Raw , <unk> faced off against Jeff Hardy \'s brother , Matt Hardy , and defeated him in the same fashion . \n', '', ' = = = = WWE Championship <unk> ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = = \n', '', ' In June 2002 , <unk> won the King of the Ring tournament , defeating <unk> Ray Dudley in the first round , Booker T in the quarter @-@ finals , Test in the semi @-@ finals , and Rob Van Dam in the finals , earning him a shot at the WWE <unk> Championship at SummerSlam . On July 22 , <unk> joined the SmackDown ! brand . After a quick feud with Hollywood <unk> Hogan in August 2002 , <unk> defeated WWE <unk> Champion , The Rock at SummerSlam to become the WWE <unk> Champion and youngest WWE Champion at age 25 , a record previously held by The Rock . He also became the second fastest wrestler to win the WWE Championship since his debut ( 126 days ) behind only Ric Flair ( 113 days ) . At the time , the <unk> WWE Championship was being defended on both brands , so Raw General Manager Eric <unk> expected <unk> to return to Raw the following night . However , SmackDown ! General Manager Stephanie McMahon announced that <unk> was only required to defend the title on SmackDown ! , forcing <unk> to institute a new championship for Raw ( the World Heavyweight Championship ) . The WWE <unk> Championship was then renamed the WWE Championship . \n', " <unk> 's rapid rise to the top of WWE in 2002 led to a feud with The Undertaker , which involved a match at <unk> . The match ended in a double <unk> resulting in <unk> retaining the title . <unk> faced The Undertaker again , at No Mercy , this time in a Hell in a Cell match . Leading up to the match , in the storyline , <unk> broke the Undertaker 's hand with a <unk> tank . Despite <unk> <unk> McMahon not to let The Undertaker use his cast as a weapon , the request was denied and the match went on as planned . In a match that saw both wrestlers and even <unk> covered in blood , it ended when <unk> reversed an attempted <unk> <unk> into his finishing F @-@ 5 maneuver for the win . Six days after his Hell in a Cell match with The Undertaker , <unk> successfully retained his WWE title in a handicap match with <unk> at the Rebellion pay @-@ per @-@ view against Edge . \n", " <unk> 's next opponent was Big Show . <unk> was convinced more than anyone that <unk> could not win , trying to talk him out of defending the title . <unk> refused and faced Big Show in Madison Square Garden at the Survivor Series pay @-@ per @-@ view . Towards the end of the match , <unk> delivered an F @-@ 5 to Big Show , but when he went for the pin , <unk> pulled the referee out of the ring . This allowed Big Show to capitalize and proceeded to <unk> <unk> on a steel chair . Show went on to pin <unk> and win the title . This loss was <unk> 's first pinfall loss in WWE and led <unk> to turn for the first time in his career into a fan favorite . Following Survivor Series , <unk> made it clear that <unk> would not get a rematch , and had <unk> a special clause saying so into his contract . In order to gain his revenge on Big Show and <unk> , <unk> <unk> in his first title defense , which came against Kurt Angle the next month at Armageddon . <unk> hit the F @-@ 5 on the champion , which enabled Angle to pin him and win the title . On the following episode of SmackDown ! , however , Angle introduced <unk> as his manager and , despite promising <unk> a title shot earlier in the evening , declared that <unk> still would not get it . <unk> was beaten down by Big Show and Angle after the main event , but would get his revenge after the show went off the air . He eventually knocked the Big Show out with a steel chair , leaving Angle alone with <unk> . <unk> then chased the champion out of the ring and resumed his assault that culminated when <unk> used the F @-@ 5 to propel Angle 's right knee into the steel <unk> . As <unk> tended to a screaming Angle , <unk> finished off the assault with a <unk> on the <unk> <unk> , breaking the champion 's leg in storyline . \n", " With Angle temporarily put out of action , <unk> 's rivalry with <unk> and the Big Show resumed , which culminated in a match at the Royal Rumble in January 2003 with the winner being placed into the Royal Rumble later in the evening . <unk> would defeat Big Show and entered the Royal Rumble as the # 29 entry , the second to last competitor to enter the match . He eliminated Matt Hardy and The World 's Greatest Tag Team , which was composed of Charlie Haas and his former <unk> teammate , Shelton Benjamin , who were <unk> by Angle . <unk> would then eliminate The Undertaker last and win the Royal Rumble , which guaranteed him a title match at WrestleMania <unk> . \n", " After the Royal Rumble , <unk> and Chris <unk> faced off against Angle , Haas , and Benjamin at No Way Out the following month and <unk> 's team won the match . During the match at WrestleMania , <unk> <unk> a shooting star press , a move he 'd done numerous times in developmental matches , and jammed his head and neck . This stunned <unk> and forced Angle and <unk> to improvise the finish of the match . <unk> would defeat Angle , after delivering an F @-@ 5 , to win his second WWE Championship . <unk> was diagnosed with a legitimate concussion from the <unk> shooting star press . \n", ' After WrestleMania , <unk> turned his attention to John <unk> , who had returned from injury in February 2003 and who had been F @-@ <unk> into a <unk> in the same manner Angle had been . <unk> claimed <unk> nearly ended his career and even named his new finishing move the " <unk> " as a <unk> at the new champion . The feud ended in a match at <unk> when <unk> defeated <unk> . On the following episode of SmackDown ! , <unk> returned to his rivalry with Big Show after he injured Rey <unk> badly during their match at <unk> . Show \'s attack resulted in <unk> being carried out on a stretcher and back board and Big Show took <unk> off the stretcher and swung the back board into the <unk> , <unk> the injury . <unk> called out the Big Show , who demanded that <unk> put his title on the line against him . This led to a stretcher match at Judgment Day for the title . <unk> successfully retained his title with help from Rey <unk> and a <unk> . During the scripted rivalry , on SmackDown , <unk> lifted Big Show off the top @-@ rope in a <unk> which caused the ring to collapse on impact . \n', ' As <unk> and Big Show continued their rivalry , Kurt Angle returned from his neck surgery and he and <unk> began to form a more friendly rivalry , as the two were allies yet contenders for the title . At the first ever SmackDown brand @-@ exclusive pay @-@ per @-@ view in July , <unk> , <unk> took on Angle and Big Show in a No <unk> triple threat match for his title , which ended after Angle hit the Angle Slam on both Big Show and <unk> , <unk> the champion to become WWE Champion for a fourth time . \n', " <unk> continued to aggressively pursue the WWE title despite his friendship with Angle . Mr. McMahon found his way into the angle , at first <unk> <unk> , who had involved himself in McMahon 's rivalry with Zach <unk> , for losing to Angle . This all turned out to be a <unk> that came into focus on the August 7 , 2003 SmackDown ! in <unk> , British Columbia . That night , <unk> and McMahon were to face each other in a steel cage match with Angle as the special guest referee as per McMahon 's orders on the previous week 's program . During the match , <unk> had passed out due to a staged backstage incident and McMahon was set to pin him , but Angle refused to allow McMahon to win that way . As the two men began to argue , <unk> rose to his feet , revealing the <unk> to the crowd , and F @-@ <unk> Angle . He then brutally beat Angle while McMahon watched , and celebrated with him afterwards , turning heel in the process . At SummerSlam , <unk> lost to Angle when Angle made <unk> tap out to the ankle lock . After that , <unk> would cement his heel turn by <unk> smaller wrestlers and attacking his rivals on a more consistent basis . He returned to using the F @-@ 5 to propel his opponents ' legs into the <unk> , as he did to Spanky and <unk> , and <unk> in Angle 's matches on two separate occasions . On the September 18 , 2003 episode of SmackDown ! , <unk> received his third shot at Angle in as many months when he faced the champion in a sixty @-@ minute Iron Man match for the title . <unk> won the match and his third WWE Championship by a final count of five to four . \n", " <unk> successfully defended his newly won title against the debuting Paul London on October 9 edition of SmackDown ! . He returned to feuding with The Undertaker . <unk> had previously cost Undertaker the title in a match against then @-@ champion Kurt Angle , which granted him a shot at <unk> 's title . At No Mercy , <unk> defeated Undertaker in a <unk> Chain match . The rivalry then came to an end after The Undertaker chose to focus on Mr. McMahon . \n", " After Paul <unk> returned to WWE as general manager of SmackDown ! , <unk> aligned himself with his former manager . With Survivor Series coming up , <unk> decided to challenge Angle to a traditional Survivor Series elimination tag team match . <unk> chose Big Show as his first teammate , with <unk> adding a returning Nathan Jones and a debuting Matt Morgan to bring the team number to four . Angle chose Chris <unk> and The <unk> to join his team . However , <unk> was injured during a match with <unk> and Angle 's team was forced to find a replacement for him . <unk> 's team picked A @-@ Train to fill the fifth and final spot for them after he attacked John <unk> , who refused to accept an invitation to join <unk> 's team . <unk> instead joined Angle 's team , and Angle added Hardcore Holly as the fifth member ; <unk> had injured Holly the year before and he hadn 't wrestled since . In the climax of the match , Chris <unk> became the only second wrestler to make <unk> tap out . <unk> faced <unk> in a singles bout two weeks later for the WWE Championship on SmackDown ! , where <unk> won after <unk> passed out to <unk> 's debuting <unk> Lock submission hold . \n", ' The Survivor Series event marked the first time <unk> met Goldberg from the Raw brand . After <unk> claimed in a backstage interview that he could beat anybody in the world , Goldberg interrupted the interview and introduced himself to <unk> , shaking hands with him before leaving with a <unk> . <unk> followed this rivalry with a feud involving Hardcore Holly . In the storyline , Holly wanted revenge on <unk> for legitimately injuring his neck during a previous match between the two in 2002 which left Holly in need of neck surgery and out of action for a year . At the Royal Rumble in 2004 , <unk> defeated Holly to retain the WWE Championship . Later in the Royal Rumble match , <unk> attacked Goldberg and delivered an F @-@ 5 , enabling Kurt Angle to eliminate him . \n', '', ' = = = = Final storylines and departure ( 2004 ) = = = = \n', '', " In February , <unk> faced Eddie Guerrero for the WWE title at No Way Out . Late in the match , Goldberg delivered a spear to <unk> while the <unk> was unconscious . Afterwards , Guerrero went to pin <unk> but <unk> kicked out at two . <unk> then attempted to F @-@ 5 Guerrero but Guerrero reversed it into a DDT . Guerrero then hit a frog splash ; <unk> <unk> to win the WWE Championship . An angry <unk> then began feuding with Goldberg , <unk> him for losing his title , and a match was set up between the two at WrestleMania <unk> . During the feud with Goldberg , <unk> was also at odds with Stone Cold Steve Austin , who was shown suggesting to Goldberg that he attack <unk> at No Way Out . After <unk> attacked Austin on Raw and stole his four @-@ <unk> , Austin was inserted as the special guest referee for the WrestleMania match . On the March 4 episode of SmackDown , <unk> defeated Hardcore Holly in his last match on a weekly WWE televised show . Behind the scenes , it was widely known that the match was Goldberg 's last in WWE . Only a week before WrestleMania , rumors surfaced that <unk> , too , was leaving to pursue a career in the National Football League ( NFL ) . As a result , <unk> 's match with Goldberg became a <unk> as the fans at Madison Square Garden <unk> and heckled both wrestlers <unk> . Goldberg gained victory after delivering a <unk> to <unk> and both men subsequently received Stone Cold <unk> from Austin . \n", '', ' = = = New Japan Pro Wrestling ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = \n', '', ' On October 8 , 2005 , <unk> won the <unk> Heavyweight Championship on his debut match in a three @-@ way match with <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> at a New Japan Pro Wrestling ( <unk> ) show in the Tokyo <unk> . <unk> is one of the few American wrestlers to have held this title . He won the match by <unk> <unk> <unk> after an F @-@ 5 , which he had renamed the Verdict since WWE owns the trademark on the F @-@ 5 name . After the match , <unk> stated that this name was referring to his lawsuit against WWE . \n', ' On December 6 , WWE filed a motion for a temporary <unk> order to prevent <unk> from continuing to work with <unk> , but the court did not grant it . Following that , he had two non @-@ title victories against <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . <unk> successfully defended his championship on January 4 , 2006 , against former champion <unk> <unk> . On January 13 , WWE once again filed an injunction against <unk> to stop him from defending the <unk> Heavyweight Championship which was also not enforced as he went on to retain his championship against former <unk> Wrestling Grand Champion <unk> on March 19 , at the <unk> Hall . <unk> had another successful title defense against Giant Bernard on May 3 , 2006 . This was the first American vs. American title match in <unk> since <unk> vs. Stan Hansen in 1990 . \n', ' On July 15 , 2006 , New Japan Pro Wrestling announced <unk> would not return to defend the <unk> Heavyweight Championship due to " <unk> issues " and had been stripped of the title . A tournament was held on July 16 to determine the new champion which was won by Hiroshi <unk> . <unk> continued to possess the physical <unk> Championship belt until late June 2007 . \n', ' Approximately one year later on June 29 , 2007 , <unk> defended his <unk> Heavyweight Championship against TNA World Heavyweight Champion Kurt Angle in a champion versus champion match . <unk> <unk> Federation promoter Antonio <unk> had stated <unk> was the " proper " <unk> Heavyweight Champion as he was not defeated for the title . Angle would defeat <unk> by forcing him to tap out to the Angle lock to win the <unk> Heavyweight Championship as recognized by <unk> and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . This was <unk> \'s last match as a professional wrestler until 2012 , when he re @-@ signed with WWE . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> = = = = \n', '', " <unk> had previously signed a non @-@ compete clause in order to be released from his contract with WWE , which prohibited him from working for any other professional wrestling companies before June 2010 . However , he decided to challenge this ruling in court . WWE responded with a <unk> after <unk> breached the agreement by appearing at a New Japan Pro Wrestling show in 2004 . In July 2005 , the two sides dropped their claims and entered negotiations to renew their relationship . WWE had offered <unk> a contract , but on August 2 , 2005 , WWE 's official website reported that <unk> had withdrawn from any involvement with the company . The lawsuit began to enter settlement talks on September 21 , but did not get solved . \n", ' On January 14 , 2006 , Judge Christopher <unk> stated that unless WWE gave him a good argument between then and the 25th , he would rule in favor of <unk> , giving him a summary judgment . This would have enabled <unk> to work anywhere , immediately . WWE was later granted a deadline <unk> . On April 24 , WWE announced on <unk> that both parties had reached a settlement . On June 12 , a federal judge dismissed the case at the request of both legal parties . \n', '', ' = = = Return to WWE = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = <unk> with Triple H and ending the <unk> ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> returned to the WWE on April 2 , 2012 , on Raw , as a heel by <unk> and delivering an F @-@ 5 to John <unk> . The following week on Raw , general manager John <unk> revealed that he signed <unk> to bring " legitimacy " back to the WWE and become the " new face of the WWE " . <unk> also announced that <unk> would face <unk> at Extreme Rules with the Extreme Rules <unk> later added to the match . <unk> was dominant throughout the match until <unk> punched <unk> in the face with a steel chain wrapped around his fist . <unk> then delivered the <unk> <unk> to <unk> onto steel steps and <unk> lost the match . \n', ' The following night on Raw , WWE \'s Chief Operating Officer Triple H refused to give in to <unk> \'s <unk> contract demands ( which included being given his own personal jet and having Raw renamed to Monday Night Raw Starring <unk> <unk> ) , resulting in <unk> attacking him and breaking his arm with a <unk> lock in storyline . The next week on Raw , Paul <unk> made his return as <unk> \'s legal representative and claimed that <unk> was quitting WWE . He later announced a lawsuit against WWE for breach of contract . At No Way Out in June , Triple H challenged <unk> , who was not present , to a match at SummerSlam which <unk> refused . Stephanie McMahon would later <unk> <unk> into accepting the match on <unk> \'s behalf on July 23 at Raw 1000 . On August 19 , at SummerSlam , <unk> defeated Triple H in a No <unk> match via submission after once again breaking his arm in storyline . The following night on Raw , <unk> declared himself the new " King of Kings " and said that he would depart from WWE after his victory over Triple H , stating that he had conquered everything in the company . \n', " <unk> returned on the January 28 , 2013 episode of Raw , <unk> Vince McMahon who was about to fire <unk> , and Despite <unk> 's pleas , <unk> hit McMahon with an F @-@ 5 , breaking McMahon 's <unk> in storyline . The following week , during The <unk> 's <unk> talk show , Raw Managing Supervisor Vickie Guerrero revealed herself as the one who signed <unk> to a new contract to impress McMahon . On the February 25 episode of Raw , <unk> once again attempted to attack McMahon , only to get into a brawl with the returning Triple H , which resulted in <unk> legitimately having his head split open and requiring eighteen <unk> . The following week , Triple H issued a challenge to <unk> , requesting a rematch with him at WrestleMania 29 , which <unk> accepted but only after Triple signed a contract and <unk> named the <unk> . The following week , after Triple H signed the contract and assaulted <unk> , the <unk> was revealed as No <unk> <unk> with Triple H 's career on the line . <unk> ended up losing the match after Triple H hit him with a <unk> onto the steel steps . On the April 15 episode of Raw , <unk> attacked <unk> ( Heath <unk> , Drew <unk> , and <unk> <unk> ) before <unk> challenged Triple H to face <unk> in a steel cage match at Extreme Rules , which Triple H accepted the following week . On May 19 at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , after interference from <unk> , he defeated Triple H and ended their feud . <unk> returned on the June 17 episode of Raw , attacking <unk> 's fellow client <unk> Punk with an F @-@ 5 . Despite the accusations from Punk , <unk> claimed that he was not behind <unk> 's attack on him . However , in July , <unk> turned on Punk , and claimed that Punk could not beat <unk> , which led to <unk> making his return and attacking Punk on the July 15 episode of Raw . The following week on Raw , Punk challenged <unk> to a match at SummerSlam , where <unk> defeated Punk in a no <unk> match . \n", ' On the December 30 episode of Raw , <unk> returned with <unk> to announce his intentions to challenge the winner of the upcoming WWE World Heavyweight Championship match between Randy <unk> and John <unk> at the Royal Rumble . <unk> then <unk> any wrestler who disapproved of that notion to challenge him , which was answered by Mark Henry , and a brawl would ensue , ending with <unk> delivering an F @-@ 5 to Henry . The following week on Raw , Henry challenged <unk> again , only to have <unk> <unk> his elbow with the <unk> lock in storyline , and this led Big Show to came out afterwards to confront <unk> , thus starting a feud which was settled at Royal Rumble , where <unk> defeated the Big Show after attacking him with a steel chair before the match began . On the February 24 , 2014 episode of Raw , after <unk> stated that <unk> had requested a match for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXX , instead receiving an open contract to face anyone else of his choosing , The Undertaker then returned and <unk> <unk> through a table , setting up their match at WrestleMania . <unk> defeated Undertaker after executing three F @-@ <unk> , ending his undefeated WrestleMania streak at 21 , a feat that was described by Sports Illustrated as being " the most shocking result since the Montreal <unk> " . \n', '', ' = = = = WWE World Heavyweight Champion ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = = = \n', '', " On the July 21 , 2014 episode of Raw , Triple H announced that <unk> would face John <unk> at SummerSlam for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship . At SummerSlam , <unk> defeated <unk> to become the WWE World Heavyweight Champion , and during the match he delivered sixteen <unk> ( most of which were German <unk> ) and two F @-@ <unk> to <unk> , who barely managed any offense . On the August 19 episode of Main Event , Triple H announced that <unk> was invoking his championship rematch clause against <unk> at Night of Champions , where <unk> was disqualified due to Seth <unk> interfering , but retained his championship , which could not be lost via <unk> . Later in the year , after <unk> reunited with The Authority , he was added to <unk> and <unk> 's championship match at Royal Rumble , making it a triple threat match , which <unk> won despite suffering a storyline broken rib during the match . \n", ' <unk> \'s next <unk> was Roman <unk> , who won the Royal Rumble match to earn the right to face <unk> for the title at WrestleMania 31 . During his main @-@ event match against <unk> , <unk> delivered multiple <unk> and was heard <unk> , " <unk> City , <unk> ! " , and thereafter " <unk> City " became one of his signature <unk> and merchandise motifs . After <unk> and <unk> traded a few false finishes , <unk> <unk> in his Money in the Bank contract while the match was in progress , making it a triple threat ; <unk> then pinned <unk> to win the title . The following night on Raw , <unk> tried to <unk> his rematch clause and subsequently attacked commentators Booker T , John " <unk> " <unk> , and Michael Cole , as well as a cameraman after <unk> refused the rematch , which led to Stephanie McMahon <unk> <unk> indefinitely in storyline . \n', " <unk> returned on the June 15 episode of Raw as a fan favorite , being chosen by The Authority as the number one contender to <unk> ' WWE World Heavyweight Championship at <unk> . On July 4 , <unk> made his first non @-@ televised wrestling appearance for WWE since his 2012 return , defeating <unk> Kingston at The Beast in the East live event in Tokyo in a quick winning effort ; he also delivered F @-@ <unk> to Kingston 's New Day <unk> Big E and Xavier Woods after the match . On July 19 at <unk> , <unk> dominated <unk> , delivering 13 <unk> ; mid @-@ pinfall , after performing an F @-@ 5 , he was attacked by The Undertaker , who incapacitated <unk> with a <unk> and two <unk> <unk> ; this ended the match , with <unk> winning by <unk> and <unk> retaining the championship . \n", '', ' = = = = Various <unk> and storylines ( 2015 – present ) = = = = \n', '', " The following night on Raw , Undertaker explained that he had attacked <unk> not for ending his WrestleMania streak , but rather for <unk> allowing <unk> to constantly <unk> Undertaker about it ; this led to the two <unk> throughout the arena and a WrestleMania rematch being scheduled for SummerSlam on August 23 , where Undertaker would controversially defeat <unk> ; during the match , Undertaker <unk> out to a <unk> lock by <unk> and the <unk> rang the bell , but the referee did not see the <unk> and demanded that the match continue , which saw Undertaker then hitting <unk> with a low blow and <unk> passed out to Undertaker 's submission hold , Hell 's Gate . The following night on Raw , <unk> and <unk> challenged Undertaker to an immediate rematch , only to be confronted by Bo Dallas , who mocked <unk> about his defeat ; <unk> then responded by delivering 3 German <unk> and an F @-@ 5 to Dallas . \n", ' During Night of Champions , it was announced that <unk> would face The Undertaker at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view , where <unk> defeated The Undertaker after a low blow and F @-@ 5 onto the exposed ring floor , ending their feud . The match was later voted " Match of the Year " during the 2015 <unk> Awards . On the January 11 episode of Raw , <unk> returned , attacking The New Day , The League of Nations ( <unk> , King Barrett , <unk> , and Alberto Del Rio ) , and Kevin <unk> , before giving an F @-@ 5 to Roman <unk> . The following week on Raw , <unk> would brawl with <unk> until they were both attacked by The Wyatt Family . At the Royal Rumble , <unk> was the 23rd entrant , eliminating four competitors before being eliminated by Bray Wyatt with help from the rest of The Wyatt Family . \n', ' On the January 25 episode of Raw , Stephanie McMahon announced that the main event of <unk> would be a triple threat match between <unk> , Roman <unk> , and Dean <unk> to determine who would face Triple H for the WWE World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania 32 . In the following weeks , <unk> would be continuously provoked by <unk> , with <unk> saving him from the subsequent attacks by <unk> . At <unk> , <unk> dominated most of the match before he was put through two announce tables by <unk> and <unk> ; he would ultimately lose the match after <unk> pinned <unk> . Because of this , <unk> attacked <unk> in the parking lot as he was arriving at the arena for Raw , but <unk> would return later in the night , having <unk> an ambulance , and he challenged <unk> to a No <unk> <unk> Street Fight match at WrestleMania 32 , where <unk> defeated <unk> . On the July 7 edition of SmackDown , it was announced that <unk> would be facing the returning Randy <unk> at SummerSlam . On July 19 , at the 2016 WWE Draft , <unk> was drafted to Raw . \n', '', ' = = Football career = = \n', '', ' After his match at WrestleMania <unk> , <unk> sidelined his career in WWE to pursue a career in the National Football League ( NFL ) despite not playing American football since high school . The WWE issued this statement on their official website , <unk> , following his departure : \n', ' <unk> <unk> has made a personal decision to put his WWE career on hold to prepare to <unk> for the National Football League this season . <unk> has wrestled his entire professional career in the WWE and we are proud of his accomplishments and wish him the best in his new endeavor . \n', ' <unk> later told a Minnesota radio show that he had " three wonderful years " in WWE , but had grown unhappy and always wanted to play pro football , adding that he did not want to be 40 years old and wondering if he could have " made it " in football . In an interview about the NFL , he stated : \n', " This is no load of bull ; it 's no WWE stunt . I am dead serious about this . I ain 't afraid of anything and I ain 't afraid of anybody . I 've been an underdog in athletics since I was five . I got zero college offers for wrestling . Now people say I can 't play football , that it 's a joke . I say I can . I 'm as good an athlete as a lot of guys in the NFL , if not better . I 've always had to fight for everything . I wasn 't the best <unk> in amateur wrestling but I was strong , had great conditioning , and a hard head . Nobody could break me . As long as I have that , I don 't give a damn what anybody else thinks . \n", ' <unk> had a great showing at the NFL <unk> . On April 17 , 2004 , a <unk> collided with his <unk> ; he suffered a broken jaw and left hand , a <unk> <unk> , and a pulled groin . Several NFL teams expressed interest in watching <unk> work out . The Minnesota Vikings worked out <unk> on June 11 , 2004 but he was hampered by the groin injury suffered in the April motorcycle accident . On July 24 it was reported that he was nearly recovered from his groin injury . He signed with the Vikings on July 27 and played in several preseason games for the team . He was released by the Vikings on August 30 , 2004 . <unk> received an invitation to play as a representative for the Vikings in NFL Europa but declined due to his desire to stay in the United States with his family . He had several football cards produced of him during his time with the Vikings . \n', '', ' = = Mixed martial arts career = = \n', '', '', " = = = Hero 's ( 2007 ) = = = \n", '', " On April 29 , 2006 , after the final match of the K @-@ 1 World Grand Prix 2006 in Las Vegas , <unk> announced his intent to join K @-@ 1 's mixed martial arts league , Hero 's . He trained with Minnesota Martial Arts Academy under Greg Nelson and Minnesota Assistant Head wrestling coach Marty Morgan . <unk> announced on August 12 in Las Vegas that he had signed a deal with the K @-@ 1 promotion . His first fight was scheduled against <unk> Hong @-@ man of Korea on June 2 , 2007 , at the K @-@ 1 <unk> ! ! USA show . However , prior to the match , Hong @-@ Man was replaced by <unk> <unk> Kim . <unk> submitted <unk> Kim with strikes in 1 : 09 of the first round to win his first official <unk> match . \n", '', ' = = = Ultimate Fighting Championship ( 2008 – 2011 ) = = = \n', '', " During <unk> 77 , it was announced that <unk> had reached a deal to fight with the Ultimate Fighting Championship ( <unk> ) . On February 2 , 2008 , <unk> made his debut with the promotion in an event titled <unk> 81 : Breaking Point against former <unk> Heavyweight Champion , Frank <unk> . Due to his large hands , <unk> was wearing <unk> gloves for the fight , making him the second man in Nevada 's combat sports history to wear such gloves after <unk> Hong @-@ man . <unk> secured an early <unk> and began landing numerous <unk> but was docked a point after a punch hit <unk> on the back of the head . Following another <unk> by <unk> , <unk> managed to secure a <unk> and force a submission at 1 : 30 of the first round and <unk> lost in his <unk> debut . At <unk> 82 , former <unk> Heavyweight Champion and Hall of Famer Mark Coleman was announced to fight <unk> at <unk> 87 . However , Coleman withdrew from the fight due to an injury and was replaced by Heath <unk> . <unk> defeated <unk> by unanimous decision . \n", ' <unk> would then face Randy <unk> for the <unk> Heavyweight Championship at <unk> 91 on November 15 . <unk> would beat <unk> via a technical knockout ( TKO ) in the second round to become the new <unk> Heavyweight Champion . \n', ' On December 27 , 2008 , at <unk> 92 , Frank <unk> defeated <unk> <unk> for the Interim Heavyweight Championship and was to face <unk> for the <unk> <unk> Heavyweight Championship at <unk> 98 . Immediately after winning the Interim Heavyweight title , <unk> found <unk> in the crowd and shouted , " You \'ve got my belt " . Due to a knee injury to <unk> , the title unification match with <unk> that was originally slated to be the <unk> 98 main event was postponed . <unk> won the postponed rematch with <unk> at <unk> 100 on July 11 , 2009 , via technical knockout in the second round . The win earned <unk> <unk> of the Year honors , with Anderson Silva , from <unk> for 2009 . During his post @-@ match celebration , <unk> flipped off the crowd who had been <unk> him . <unk> also made a disparaging comment about the pay @-@ per @-@ view \'s primary sponsor <unk> Light , claiming they " won \'t pay me <unk> \' " and promoted <unk> Light instead . <unk> later apologized for his remarks at the post @-@ fight press conference , where he held a bottle of <unk> Light and endorsed their product . \n', ' On July 1 , 2009 , it was reported that the winner of the Shane <unk> vs. Cain <unk> fight at <unk> 104 would face <unk> but the match was scrapped and <unk> was scheduled to defend his belt against Shane <unk> at <unk> 106 on November 21 . On October 26 , 2009 , it was announced that <unk> pulled out of his <unk> bout due to an illness . <unk> President Dana White said <unk> had been ill for three weeks , claiming he had never been this sick in his life and that it would take him a while to recover ; his fight with <unk> was <unk> for <unk> 108 on January 2 , 2010 . <unk> initially sought treatment in Canada , but later told reporters that he had received " Third World treatment " at a hospital in Brandon , Manitoba , and that seeking better treatment in the U.S. saved his life . <unk> went on to criticize Canadian health care further and stated that he shared his experience in an effort to speak " on the behalf of the doctors in the United States that don \'t want health care reform to happen " . \n', ' On November 4 , it was confirmed that <unk> was suffering from <unk> and that his bout with <unk> would have to wait a bit longer and the fight for <unk> \'s heavyweight championship was cancelled . On November 14 , at the <unk> 105 post @-@ fight conference , Dana White stated , " [ <unk> ] \' s not well and he \'s not going to be getting well <unk> soon " and that an interim title match might need to be set up . In addition to <unk> , it was revealed that he was suffering from a serious case of <unk> , an intestinal disorder , which required surgery . After further diagnosis , <unk> underwent surgery on November 16 to close a <unk> in his intestine that had been leaking <unk> matter into his abdomen , causing pain , <unk> , and <unk> his immune system to the point that he contracted <unk> . From the level of damage to <unk> \'s system , the surgeon estimated that the intestinal condition had been ongoing for around a year . \n', ' In January 2010 , <unk> announced on ESPN \'s <unk> that he was scheduled to make a return to the <unk> in the summer . A match between Frank <unk> and Shane <unk> took place on March 27 at <unk> 111 to determine the Interim Heavyweight Champion , and <unk> \'s next opponent . Shane <unk> defeated <unk> via knockout in the first round , becoming the new Interim Champion . After the fight , <unk> came into the ring and stated , " It was a good fight but he \'s wearing a belt that \'s a make @-@ believe belt . I \'ve got the real championship belt " . <unk> faced <unk> at <unk> 116 to <unk> the heavyweight titles . Early in the first round , <unk> knocked <unk> down with punch , gave him a cut above his left eye , and used a ground and pound attack the rest of the round . In the next round , <unk> was able to take <unk> down , attain a full mount , then move into side @-@ control and finish the fight with an arm triangle <unk> . With the victory , <unk> became the <unk> <unk> Heavyweight Champion , earning his first <unk> of the Night and giving <unk> his first loss . The win also tied a <unk> record for most consecutive successful Heavyweight Championship defenses . \n', " <unk> 's next defense was against undefeated top contender Cain <unk> on October 23 , at the Honda Center in <unk> , California at <unk> 121 . Dana White announced via <unk> that the <unk> would bring back <unk> Primetime to hype the fight . He was defeated by <unk> for the title by TKO in the first round . \n", ' On January 11 , 2011 , <unk> was announced as a coach of The Ultimate Fighter Season 13 , opposite Junior dos Santos , with the two expected to fight on June 11 at <unk> 131 , however , he was struck with another bout of <unk> and had to withdraw from the fight on May 12 . He was replaced by Shane <unk> , who ended up losing against dos Santos . <unk> underwent surgery on May 27 to help battle his problems with <unk> . Dana White said that he had a 12 @-@ inch piece of his <unk> removed . \n', " In its May 2011 issue , ESPN 's magazine published a story listing the highest paid athlete based on base salary and earnings for the most recent calendar year or most recent season in 30 sports . <unk> topped the list for <unk> at $ 5 @.@ 3 million , which included his reported bout salaries and estimated pay @-@ per @-@ view bonuses . \n", ' In the summer of 2011 , <unk> announced that he was returning to action , stating , " I feel like a new man . <unk> . Strong . I feel like I used to feel " . His return match was scheduled to be at <unk> 141 on December 30 in Las Vegas against former <unk> heavyweight champion <unk> <unk> . <unk> won the fight by way of technical knockout in the first round . The result of the fight remains controversial , as <unk> tested positive for elevated levels of <unk> prior to his next fight . <unk> then announced his retirement from <unk> , mentioning his struggles with <unk> and saying " tonight was the last time you \'ll see me in the <unk> " . \n', ' <unk> about a return to <unk> lasted until March 24 , 2015 , when <unk> announced in an interview on <unk> that he had re @-@ signed with WWE and officially closed the door on a return to <unk> , even though he was offered a deal " ten times more " than what he had made previously in his <unk> career . He further elaborated that , while he was training for months for a return to the <unk> , he felt " physically great but something was lacking mentally " . <unk> added that " [ he \'s ] an older <unk> now , so [ he ] makes <unk> <unk> decisions " and that he chose to sign with WWE instead of returning to <unk> because he could " work part @-@ time with full @-@ time pay " . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> 200 ( 2016 ) = = = \n', '', ' Though <unk> said he was " closing the door on <unk> " in March 2015 , <unk> announced on June 4 , 2016 , that he would return at <unk> 200 on July 9 . WWE confirmed it had granted <unk> " a one @-@ off opportunity " to compete at <unk> 200 before he would return to the company for SummerSlam on August 21 . \n', " <unk> , representing Canada for the first time in his career , defeated Mark Hunt by unanimous decision ( 29 @-@ 27 ) , avoiding 19 of Hunt 's 30 attempted standing strikes , and taking him down four times to land 43 significant ground strikes , 32 in the final round . He also won a <unk> @-@ record $ 2 @.@ 5 million <unk> . \n", ' On July 15 , <unk> was notified of a potential anti @-@ doping policy violation by the United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( <unk> ) stemming from an undisclosed banned substance in an out @-@ of @-@ competition sample collected on June 28 . Shortly after this was announced , WWE said <unk> \'s match with Randy <unk> at SummerSlam would still take place . Hunt told <unk> to either pay him half of <unk> \'s <unk> or let him out of his contract . He later changed his mind on Twitter , and asked for the whole <unk> . <unk> has not yet publicly responded to Hunt . <unk> told the Associated Press , " We will get to the bottom of this . " On July 19 , the <unk> announced that a second sample taken in @-@ competition on July 9 tested positive for the same banned substance discovered in the previous out @-@ of @-@ competition sample . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> pay @-@ per @-@ views = = = \n', '', '', ' = = Personal life = = \n', '', " <unk> married <unk> Greek , better known as <unk> , on May 6 , 2006 . They reside on a farm in <unk> , Saskatchewan , having previously lived in Maple Plain , Minnesota . They have two sons : Turk ( born June 3 , 2009 ) and Duke ( born July 21 , 2010 ) . <unk> also has twins with his former fiancée , Nicole <unk> , the first being a son named Luke ( born <unk> Jr . ) and the second a daughter named <unk> Lynn ( born April 10 , 2002 ) . <unk> is 10 minutes older than Luke . <unk> has full custody of the twins , and is the stepfather of Mariah , Greek 's daughter with her late husband . \n", ' <unk> is a conservative and a supporter of the Republican Party . He is a member of the National Rifle Association , and made an appearance at their annual meeting in May 2011 to discuss his passion for hunting and his role as a spokesman for <unk> <unk> . \n', ' During his first run in WWE , <unk> developed <unk> to both alcohol and <unk> , allegedly drinking a bottle of <unk> per day and taking hundreds of <unk> <unk> per month to manage the pain caused by wear and tear on his body ; he named his accident at WrestleMania <unk> as a particular source of pain . <unk> claims that , as a result of his addiction and mental exhaustion , he does not remember " an entire two years " of his WWE career . \n', ' In January 2001 , <unk> was arrested by police in Louisville , Kentucky for suspicion of possessing large amounts of anabolic steroids . The charges were dropped when it was discovered that the substances were a legal growth hormone . His lawyer described it as a " <unk> type of thing " . \n', ' On December 15 , 2011 , <unk> was charged with hunting <unk> on a trip to Alberta on November 19 , 2010 . Two charges were dropped , but <unk> pleaded guilty to the charge of improper <unk> of an animal . He was fined $ 1 @,@ 725 and given a six @-@ month hunting suspension . \n', " As of July 2016 , <unk> 's eldest son , <unk> Jr. is ranked # 1 in Saskatchewan and # 4 in all of Canada in amateur wrestling . \n", '', ' = = Other media = = \n', '', " <unk> appears in the video games WWE SmackDown ! <unk> Your Mouth , WWE SmackDown ! Here Comes the Pain , <unk> NFL 06 , <unk> 2009 <unk> , <unk> <unk> 2010 , WWE ' 12 , WWE ' 13 , WWE <unk> , WWE <unk> , WWE <unk> , and WWE <unk> . \n", " In 2003 , WWE Home Video released a DVD <unk> <unk> 's career entitled <unk> <unk> : Here Comes the Pain . It was re @-@ released in 2012 as a three @-@ disc DVD and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray collector 's edition to tie in with <unk> 's WWE return . It was also expanded to include new matches and interviews . \n", " <unk> was featured on the covers of <unk> and <unk> & <unk> magazine in 2004 , and Minneapolis ' City <unk> in 2008 . \n", ' In 2009 , <unk> signed an endorsement deal with <unk> <unk> . A CD containing footage of <unk> training was included with <unk> \'s " <unk> " product . \n', ' In 2011 , <unk> published an autobiography titled Death <unk> : My Story of <unk> , <unk> , and Survival ( ISBN 978 @-@ <unk> ) . It was co @-@ written with Paul <unk> . \n', ' In a 2013 post on his blog , Attack on Titan author <unk> <unk> revealed that he drew inspiration from <unk> for the character of the Armored Titan . \n', ' <unk> has also appeared in multiple comedic <unk> and <unk> videos by actor Eric <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Filmography = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Television = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Video games = = = \n', '', '', ' = = In wrestling = = \n', '', ' <unk> moves \n', ' <unk> Lock ( Over @-@ the @-@ shoulder single leg Boston crab ) – 2002 – 2004 \n', " F @-@ 5 ( WWE ) / Verdict ( <unk> / <unk> ) ( <unk> 's carry <unk> ) – 2002 – 2006 ; 2012 – present \n", ' <unk> lock – 2012 – present \n', ' <unk> star press – <unk> ; only used once in WWE \n', ' Signature moves \n', ' <unk> \n', ' <unk> slam \n', ' Gorilla press slam \n', " <unk> <unk> to the opponent 's <unk> \n", ' Multiple suplex variations \n', ' <unk> @-@ to @-@ back , sometimes to two opponents at once \n', " Fisherman 's , sometimes while delaying \n", ' <unk> belly @-@ to @-@ belly , sometimes into or out of the ring \n', ' Release / Rolling German \n', ' <unk> \n', ' <unk> \n', ' Multiple <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> \n', ' Rear naked <unk> \n', ' Running <unk> \n', ' Standing double leg <unk> followed by mounted <unk> \n', ' Triple non @-@ release <unk> \n', ' <unk> \n', ' Mr. McMahon \n', ' <unk> \n', ' Paul <unk> \n', ' <unk> \n', ' " The <unk> " \n', ' " The Beast ( <unk> ) " \n', ' " The <unk> " \n', ' " The Freak " \n', ' " The Next Big Thing " \n', ' " The One in 21 – 1 / 22 @-@ 1 " \n', ' " The Nightmare of <unk> City " \n', ' Entrance themes \n', ' Ultimate Fighting Championship \n', ' " <unk> Sandman " by Metallica \n', ' " <unk> Size <unk> ( And the <unk> Winds ) " by <unk> <unk> \n', ' World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE \n', ' " <unk> " by Jim Johnston ( April 8 , 2002 – June 3 , 2002 ) \n', ' " Next Big Thing " by Jim Johnston ( June 10 , 2002 – March 14 , 2004 ; April 2 , 2012 – August 20 , 2012 ) \n', ' " Next Big Thing ( Remix ) " by Jim Johnston ( January 28 , 2013 – present ) \n', '', ' = = Mixed martial arts record = = \n', '', '', ' = = Championships , awards , and honors = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Collegiate wrestling = = = \n', '', ' National Collegiate Athletic Association \n', ' NCAA Division I All @-@ American ( 1999 , 2000 ) \n', ' NCAA Division I Heavyweight Champion ( 2000 ) \n', ' Big Ten Conference Champion ( 1999 , 2000 ) \n', ' National Junior College Athletic Association \n', ' <unk> All @-@ American ( 1997 , 1998 ) \n', ' <unk> Heavyweight Champion ( 1998 ) \n', ' North Dakota State University <unk> Tournament Champion ( 1997 – 1999 ) \n', '', ' = = = Mixed martial arts = = = \n', '', ' Inside <unk> \n', ' Biggest <unk> ( 2008 ) \n', ' Rookie of the Year ( 2008 ) \n', ' <unk> Awards \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2009 ) \n', ' Sports Illustrated \n', ' Top <unk> of the Year ( 2008 ) \n', ' Ultimate Fighting Championship \n', ' <unk> Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) \n', ' <unk> of the Night ( 1 time ) \n', ' World <unk> Awards \n', ' <unk> Fighter of the Year ( 2009 ) \n', ' Wrestling Observer <unk> \n', ' Best Box Office <unk> ( 2008 – 2010 ) \n', ' <unk> Most Valuable Fighter ( 2008 – 2010 ) \n', '', ' = = = Professional wrestling = = = \n', '', ' Guinness World Records \n', ' World record : <unk> person to win the WWE Championship ( aged 25 years , 44 days ) \n', ' <unk> <unk> Federation \n', ' <unk> Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) 1 \n', ' New Japan Pro Wrestling \n', ' <unk> Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) 1 \n', ' Ohio Valley Wrestling \n', ' <unk> Southern Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Shelton Benjamin \n', ' Pro Wrestling Illustrated \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Kurt Angle \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2015 ) vs. The Undertaker \n', ' Match of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Kurt Angle in an Iron Man match on SmackDown ! on September 16 \n', ' Most <unk> <unk> of the Year ( 2002 ) \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2002 , 2014 ) \n', ' Ranked # 1 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2003 \n', ' Wrestling Observer <unk> \n', ' Best <unk> ( 2003 ) \n', ' Best Wrestling <unk> ( 2002 ) F @-@ 5 \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2003 ) vs. Kurt Angle \n', ' Most <unk> <unk> ( 2002 , 2003 ) \n', ' Wrestling Observer <unk> Hall of Fame ( Class of 2015 ) \n', ' World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE \n', ' WWE Championship ( 4 times ) 2 \n', ' King of the Ring ( 2002 ) \n', ' Royal Rumble ( 2003 ) \n', ' <unk> Awards ( 5 times ) \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2015 ) – # <unk> \n', ' Match of the Year ( 2015 ) – vs The Undertaker at Hell in a Cell \n', ' <unk> of the Year ( 2015 ) – vs The Undertaker \n', ' " Tell Me You <unk> \'t Just Say That " Moment of the Year ( 2015 ) – <unk> " <unk> City " at WrestleMania 31 \n', " The <unk> <unk> Moment of the Year ( 2014 ) – Ending The Undertaker 's WrestleMania streak at WrestleMania XXX \n", " 1 ^ <unk> 's <unk> Heavyweight Championship reign at <unk> is considered a continuation of his reign from <unk> . \n", ' 2 ^ When <unk> won the title for the first time it was known as the WWE <unk> Championship . His next two <unk> were as simply WWE Champion , while his final one was as WWE World Heavyweight Champion . \n', '', '', ' = Constant k filter = \n', '', ' Constant k <unk> , also k @-@ type <unk> , are a type of electronic filter designed using the image method . They are the original and simplest <unk> produced by this methodology and consist of a ladder network of identical sections of passive components . Historically , they are the first <unk> that could approach the ideal filter frequency response to within any prescribed limit with the addition of a sufficient number of sections . However , they are rarely considered for a modern design , the principles behind them having been superseded by other methodologies which are more accurate in their prediction of filter response . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', " Constant k <unk> were invented by George Campbell . He published his work in 1922 , but had clearly invented the <unk> some time before , as his colleague at AT & T Co , Otto <unk> , was already making improvements to the design at this time . Campbell 's <unk> were far superior to the simpler single element circuits that had been used previously . Campbell called his <unk> electric wave <unk> , but this term later came to mean any filter that passes waves of some frequencies but not others . Many new forms of wave filter were subsequently invented ; an early ( and important ) variation was the m @-@ derived filter by <unk> who coined the term constant k for the Campbell filter in order to distinguish them . \n", " The great advantage Campbell 's <unk> had over the <unk> circuit and other simple <unk> of the time was that they could be designed for any desired degree of stop band rejection or <unk> of transition between pass band and stop band . It was only necessary to add more filter sections until the desired response was obtained . \n", ' The <unk> were designed by Campbell for the purpose of separating <unk> telephone channels on transmission lines , but their subsequent use has been much more widespread than that . The design techniques used by Campbell have largely been superseded . However , the ladder <unk> used by Campbell with the constant k is still in use today with <unk> of modern filter designs such as the <unk> filter . Campbell gave constant k designs for low @-@ pass , high @-@ pass and band @-@ pass <unk> . Band @-@ stop and multiple band <unk> are also possible . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' Some of the <unk> terms and section terms used in this article are pictured in the diagram below . Image theory defines quantities in terms of an infinite cascade of two @-@ port sections , and in the case of the <unk> being discussed , an infinite ladder network of L @-@ sections . Here " L " should not be confused with the <unk> L – in electronic filter <unk> , " L " refers to the specific filter shape which resembles inverted letter " L " . \n', ' The sections of the hypothetical infinite filter are made of series elements having <unk> <unk> and <unk> elements with <unk> <unk> . The factor of two is introduced for mathematical convenience , since it is usual to work in terms of half @-@ sections where it disappears . The image <unk> of the input and output port of a section will generally not be the same . However , for a mid @-@ series section ( that is , a section from halfway through a series element to halfway through the next series element ) will have the same image <unk> on both ports due to symmetry . This image <unk> is designated <unk> due to the " T " <unk> of a mid @-@ series section . Likewise , the image <unk> of a mid @-@ <unk> section is designated <unk> due to the " <unk> " <unk> . Half of such a " T " or " <unk> " section is called a half @-@ section , which is also an L @-@ section but with half the element values of the full L @-@ section . The image <unk> of the half @-@ section is <unk> on the input and output ports : on the side presenting the series element it is equal to the mid @-@ series <unk> , but on the side presenting the <unk> element it is equal to the mid @-@ <unk> <unk> . There are thus two variant ways of using a half @-@ section . \n', " Parts of this article or section rely on the reader 's knowledge of the complex <unk> representation of <unk> and <unk> and on knowledge of the frequency domain representation of signals . \n", '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' The building block of constant k <unk> is the half @-@ section " L " network , composed of a series <unk> Z , and a <unk> <unk> <unk> The " k " in " constant k " is the value given by , \n', ' <formula> \n', ' Thus , k will have units of <unk> , that is , <unk> . It is readily apparent that in order for k to be constant , Y must be the dual <unk> of Z. A physical interpretation of k can be given by observing that k is the limiting value of <unk> as the size of the section ( in terms of values of its components , such as <unk> , <unk> , etc . ) approaches zero , while keeping k at its initial value . Thus , k is the characteristic <unk> , <unk> , of the transmission line that would be formed by these <unk> small sections . It is also the image <unk> of the section at resonance , in the case of band @-@ pass <unk> , or at <unk> = 0 in the case of low @-@ pass <unk> . For example , the pictured low @-@ pass half @-@ section has \n', ' <formula> . \n', ' Elements L and C can be made <unk> small while retaining the same value of k . Z and Y however , are both approaching zero , and from the formulae ( below ) for image <unk> , \n', ' <formula> . \n', '', ' = = = Image <unk> = = = \n', '', ' See also Image <unk> # <unk> \n', ' The image <unk> of the section are given by \n', ' <formula> \n', ' and \n', ' <formula> \n', ' Given that the filter does not contain any <unk> elements , the image <unk> in the pass band of the filter is purely real and in the stop band it is purely imaginary . For example , for the pictured low @-@ pass half @-@ section , \n', ' <formula> \n', ' The transition occurs at a cut @-@ off frequency given by \n', ' <formula> \n', ' Below this frequency , the image <unk> is real , \n', ' <formula> \n', ' Above the cut @-@ off frequency the image <unk> is imaginary , \n', ' <formula> \n', '', ' = = = <unk> parameters = = = \n', '', ' The transmission parameters for a general constant k half @-@ section are given by \n', ' <formula> \n', ' and for a chain of n half @-@ sections \n', ' <formula> \n', ' For the low @-@ pass L @-@ shape section , below the cut @-@ off frequency , the transmission parameters are given by \n', ' <formula> \n', ' That is , the transmission is <unk> in the pass @-@ band with only the phase of the signal changing . Above the cut @-@ off frequency , the transmission parameters are : \n', ' <formula> \n', '', ' = = = <unk> <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The presented plots of image <unk> , <unk> and phase change correspond to a low @-@ pass prototype filter section . The prototype has a cut @-@ off frequency of <unk> \n', ' = 1 <unk> / s and a nominal <unk> k = \n', ' 1 <unk> . This is produced by a filter half @-@ section with <unk> L \n', ' = 1 <unk> and <unk> C = \n', ' 1 <unk> . This prototype can be <unk> scaled and frequency scaled to the desired values . The low @-@ pass prototype can also be transformed into high @-@ pass , band @-@ pass or band @-@ stop types by application of suitable frequency <unk> . \n', '', ' = = <unk> sections = = \n', '', ' Several L @-@ shape half @-@ sections may be <unk> to form a composite filter . Like <unk> must always face like in these combinations . There are therefore two circuits that can be formed with two identical L @-@ shaped half @-@ sections . Where a port of image <unk> <unk> faces another <unk> , the section is called a <unk> section . Where <unk> faces <unk> the section so formed is a T section . Further additions of half @-@ sections to either of these section forms a ladder network which may start and end with series or <unk> elements . \n', ' It should be borne in mind that the characteristics of the filter predicted by the image method are only accurate if the section is terminated with its image <unk> . This is usually not true of the sections at either end , which are usually terminated with a fixed resistance . The further the section is from the end of the filter , the more accurate the prediction will become , since the effects of the terminating <unk> are masked by the intervening sections . \n', '', '', ' = The <unk> = \n', '', ' " The <unk> " is an episode of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , first broadcast on Christmas Day 2012 on BBC One . It is the eighth Christmas special since the show \'s 2005 revival and the first to be within a series . It was written by head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat and directed by Saul <unk> . \n', ' The episode is set in the Victorian era and sees the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) brooding with the assistance of <unk> Madame <unk> ( Neve <unk> ) , her wife Jenny Flint ( <unk> Stewart ) and <unk> <unk> ( Dan <unk> ) , after the loss of companions Amy Pond and Rory Williams in the previous episode , " The Angels Take Manhattan " . He is forced out of hiding to investigate mysterious , sentient <unk> that are building themselves and meets <unk> Oswald ( Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman ) , a governess also investigating the <unk> . They discover that the <unk> are being animated by the Great Intelligence ( voice of Ian <unk> ) with the help of a man named Dr <unk> ( Richard E. Grant ) . \n', ' Building upon the character \'s surprise introduction in " Asylum of the <unk> " , " The <unk> " introduces <unk> as the Doctor \'s new companion , though ultimately it would be a third version of her character that would travel with the Doctor starting with " The Bells of Saint John " . In addition to <unk> , " The <unk> " also introduces a redesigned <unk> , revised title sequence and theme music , and sees changes to the Doctor \'s costume . The special was produced in August 2012 , with location filming in Newport , Wales and Bristol . It received final ratings of 9 @.@ 87 million viewers in the UK , becoming the fourth most @-@ watched programme of Christmas Day . " The <unk> " was met with mostly positive reviews from critics , most of whom received the introduction and character of <unk> well . However , some felt that Grant and <unk> were <unk> as villains or the plot was slight because of the focus on characterisation . \n', '', ' = = Plot = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' To promote the special , three <unk> were released . The first was broadcast during the 2012 Children in Need <unk> on 16 November 2012 , titled " The Great Detective " . The <unk> Madame <unk> , her human wife Jenny Flint , and the <unk> <unk> ( all returning from " A Good Man Goes to War " ) describe a number of strange phenomena to a shadowed fourth detective . The fourth detective reveals himself to be the Doctor , and tells the group that he has retired . \n', ' A second prequel , titled " <unk> <unk> " , was released online on 17 December 2012 . At the end of a case , <unk> and Jenny <unk> with an officer from Scotland Yard and <unk> for <unk> \'s violent wishes for the <unk> \'s punishment . <unk> explains <unk> \'s alien origin as well as her own to the officer , much to his <unk> . <unk> reveals that she was <unk> by an extension to the London Underground and initially disliked humans , though that changed when she fell in love with Jenny . On the carriage ride home , Jenny notices it is beginning to snow and <unk> notes that the snow should be impossible because there are no clouds in the sky . \n', ' A third prequel , titled " The Battle of Demon \'s Run — Two Days Later " was released on the United States iTunes and Amazon Video stores on 25 March 2013 . Two days after the events of " A Good Man Goes to War " , <unk> and Jenny convince <unk> that he is not mortally wounded and invite him to accompany them back to 1800s London . The scene had been filmed as an extra due to the anticipation that fans would ask how <unk> was resurrected and came to be in <unk> \'s employ . \n', '', ' = = = Synopsis = = = \n', '', ' In 1842 England , a young boy builds a <unk> , but refuses to play with the other children . The <unk> starts speaking to the boy , repeating his <unk> that the other children are silly . Fifty years later , the boy has grown up to be Dr. Walter <unk> , proprietor of the Great Intelligence Institute . He hires men to collect samples of snow , which he places in a large snow @-@ filled globe in his laboratory before feeding the men to a group of animated <unk> . The Doctor , still <unk> after losing his former companions Amy Pond and Rory Williams , has parked his <unk> above Victorian London among the clouds . He uses his allies <unk> , Jenny , and <unk> to keep people away from him . They also fill their time investigating mysteries throughout the city . \n', ' Elsewhere , <unk> <unk> <unk> Oswald investigates a disturbance outside the tavern she works at and finds the Doctor walking by . He attempts to leave discreetly , but <unk> follows him to a coach . Not wishing to become involved in matters , the Doctor instructs <unk> to bring him a memory worm that will erase the last hour of <unk> \'s memories with just a touch . Before they can do so , they are surrounded by <unk> created from snow with psychic properties who attack the group . The Doctor realises that <unk> \'s thoughts are creating the <unk> and ends the threat by instructing her to think of them melting . <unk> <unk> the Doctor that if he <unk> her memory , she will forget how to deal with the <unk> . The Doctor <unk> allows her to go and <unk> a staircase to the sky to return to the <unk> . <unk> follows him and knocks on the door , but she hides and flees down the staircase when the Doctor answers . <unk> returns to her other job as governess for the children of Captain <unk> . She learns that <unk> \'s daughter has been having horrible dreams about their previous governess returning from the dead . <unk> realises that the pond that contains the old governess \' body is the only thing still frozen around them . She attempts to track down the Doctor but instead attracts the attention of Jenny , who takes her to see <unk> . <unk> tells <unk> she gets only one word to impress the Doctor with if she wants his help . <unk> chooses the word " Pond " , which <unk> the Doctor and <unk> his interest . \n', " Acting on a tip from <unk> , the Doctor visits the Great Intelligence Institute posing as Sherlock Holmes . He confronts Dr. <unk> and find a large glass globe in <unk> 's office that contains psychic snow . The Doctor speaks to the Great Intelligence , the entity that has been speaking to Dr. <unk> since he was a boy . He learns that the Great Intelligence has been controlling the <unk> and has taken interest in <unk> 's pond . The Doctor visits the pond and <unk> that the Great Intelligence is using the old governess ' body as a DNA <unk> to form an ice creature that will retain its form and not melt . While <unk> is putting the children to bed , the frozen body of the governess breaks into the house . The Doctor fights her off and is joined by <unk> , Jenny and <unk> . Dr. <unk> arrives with more <unk> and tells them he wants the governess ' ice body . The Doctor flees with <unk> to the roof of the mansion and then to the <unk> <unk> overhead . They are pursued by the ice governess , whom the Doctor traps under a layer of frozen ice crystals . Inside the <unk> the Doctor gives <unk> a <unk> key , but the ice governess arrives and pulls <unk> down off the cloud . \n", ' The Doctor picks up <unk> and takes her back to <unk> \'s mansion , placing her under medical care of <unk> . He collects the ice fragments from the governess and places them in a <unk> London Underground <unk> tin . He and <unk> travel to <unk> \'s lab , where the Doctor notes the Intelligence \'s plan to replace humanity with ice creatures and holds up the tin with the necessary DNA . Dr <unk> <unk> the tin and opens it only to find the memory worm , which <unk> on to him . The Doctor states that the Great Intelligence , which has been existing as a mirror of Dr <unk> \'s thoughts , will vanish with the <unk> of <unk> \'s memories . Instead , the Intelligence reveals that it existed long enough that it can now control <unk> \'s body , which it uses to attack <unk> and the Doctor . The influence of the Great Intelligence quickly <unk> , and <unk> falls dead . Outside , a salt @-@ water rain has started , and the Doctor sees that another psychic ability has taken control of the snow from the Great Intelligence : the <unk> family , crying for <unk> . <unk> informs the Doctor upon his return to the <unk> mansion that <unk> only has moments left , and she passes away as the Doctor returns the <unk> key to her . At her funeral , the Doctor reads <unk> \'s full name on her tombstone and realises she is the woman he met in " Asylum of the <unk> " who became a <unk> , whom he refers to as " <unk> Girl " . He <unk> announces that a person dying twice is an impossibility and , bidding farewell to his allies for now , the Doctor departs in the <unk> to investigate and find <unk> . The episode concludes in contemporary times , where a young woman resembling <unk> walks through the same graveyard , <unk> by <unk> \'s tombstone . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The Second Doctor previously encountered the Great Intelligence in the serials The <unk> <unk> ( 1967 ) , set in the 1930s , and The Web of Fear ( 1968 ) , set in the 1960s . In these stories , the Great Intelligence uses robot <unk> as its physical presence . The events of The Web of Fear are alluded to by the Doctor in " The <unk> " when he presents the London Underground <unk> tin to the Great Intelligence in Dr <unk> \'s laboratory ; the Intelligence states , " I do not understand these markings " , in reference to the 1967 London Underground map design on the tin . The Doctor remarks that the Underground is a " key strategic weakness in metropolitan living " , referring to ( and possibly setting in motion ) the future <unk> attack on London via the Underground . \n', ' Coleman previously played <unk> Oswald in " Asylum of the <unk> " , though the connection between the two characters is not clarified until <unk> reveals she has an interest in <unk> , a trait that <unk> \'s character also had . The Doctor , after meeting <unk> , <unk> replies " those were the days " when she asks why he isn \'t staying to get acquainted with her , which are the same words he tells Craig <unk> ( " <unk> Time " ) when Craig comments that the Doctor always wins . The final scenes at the graveyard establish that <unk> shares the same name as <unk> , leading the Doctor to <unk> they are the same person . As seen on her gravestone , <unk> \'s <unk> is 23 November , the date Doctor Who was first transmitted in 1963 . \n', '', ' = = Production = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Writing and design changes = = = \n', '', ' Writer Steven Moffat stated that he wanted an " epic " quality to the Christmas special . The story would also show how the Doctor had responded to losing his previous companions ; Moffat said that " I think he \'s probably reached the point in his life where he \'s saying , \' Friendship for me is just postponed <unk> — I want to be on my own for a while \' . " Moffat compared the withdrawn Doctor seen at the onset of the episode to the first appearances of the First Doctor ( William <unk> ) in 1963 and the <unk> Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) in 2005 . He also attributed the idea of a retired Doctor to a plot proposed by Douglas Adams in the 1970s , but rejected by the production team at the time . Continuing the theme introduced with the series \' first five episodes , " The <unk> " was promoted like a movie . A movie poster was released in the Radio Times , showing the Doctor and <unk> ascending the ladder to the <unk> . \n', ' The episode saw several major design changes for the series . " The <unk> " is the debut of a redesigned <unk> interior , as well as a new title sequence and variation of the theme tune . The new title sequence features a brief glimpse of the Doctor \'s face , the first time since Survival , the final serial of the classic series in 1989 , that the Doctor \'s face has been seen in the title sequence . Moffat had noticed that the <unk> \' design was getting " progressively whimsical " and resembled more of a " magical place " rather than a machine . It was designed by series production designer Michael <unk> , who stated that the new interior was also supposed to be " darker and <unk> " and provide an easier access to the " gallery " of the ship when shooting . \n', ' The Doctor also wears a one @-@ off costume , Victorian @-@ themed , which Smith described as " a bit <unk> <unk> meets the Doctor " . Moffat described the new outfit as a " progression " as the Doctor was in " a different phase of his life now " and felt more " grown @-@ up " and <unk> . The costume was designed by Howard <unk> for this episode . " The <unk> " also contains several references to Sherlock Holmes , including the Doctor dressing up as him . Moffat is co @-@ creator of the BBC series Sherlock , for which Smith auditioned for the role of Doctor Watson before being cast as the Doctor . In addition , the incidental music during the scene bears a resemblance to the Sherlock theme . \n', '', ' = = = Casting = = = \n', '', ' This episode marks the return of Jenna @-@ Louise Coleman , who previously appeared in the series opener , " Asylum of the <unk> " . Coleman was cast because of her chemistry with Matt Smith , and especially because she was able to talk faster than him . She auditioned for the role of <unk> , not <unk> from " Asylum " , as the concept of the two characters being the same only occurred to Moffat whilst casting for <unk> . The production team requested that the press and fans who attended advanced screenings keep Coleman \'s appearance a secret until " Asylum " was broadcast ; the effort was ultimately successful . Moffat stated that the introduction of a new companion made " the show feel different " and brought the story to " a new beginning " with a different person meeting the Doctor . Smith said that <unk> was different from her predecessor Amy Pond ( Karen <unk> ) , which allowed the audience to see a different side of the Doctor . Coleman described her as resourceful and not intimidated , citing the reason for following the Doctor at the beginning as pursuing answers . The <unk> who would become a travelling companion of the Doctor would not debut until the Spring premiere , " The Bells of Saint John " ; save for a brief cameo at the end of " The <unk> " . Coleman stated that she played each version as individuals with " trust that there would be a payoff " to her mystery . \n', ' Also returning to the series are Neve <unk> as Madame <unk> , Dan <unk> as <unk> and <unk> Stewart as Jenny . All three previously appeared in " A Good Man Goes to War " and reprised their roles both in this episode and in the <unk> . They returned due to the popularity of <unk> and Jenny ; Moffat considered a spin @-@ off featuring them , though he did not have the time to do it . Instead , he decided to bring them back in the main series . Richard E. Grant had previously played the Doctor on two occasions , as an alternative Tenth Doctor in the spoof charity special Doctor Who and the Curse of <unk> Death , which was written by Moffat and as an alternative <unk> Doctor in the animated story Scream of the <unk> which had been intended to be a continuation of the series before it was revived in 2005 . Smith commented that Grant was " born to be a Who villain . He pitches it on that perfect level and tone " . Grant \'s appearance in Doctor Who was <unk> by the BBC via Twitter , announcing his appearance at midnight 5 August 2012 . Tom Ward was drawn to his role because of the quality of the script , and also stated his young children were pleased that he appeared in the programme . The Great Intelligence was voiced by Sir Ian <unk> . The two children <unk> is governess to , <unk> and <unk> , were played by real @-@ life brother and sister Joseph and Ellie <unk> @-@ Alden . \n', '', ' = = = Filming and effects = = = \n', '', ' " The <unk> " was originally intended to be produced in the fourth production block of the series and be the first episode Coleman shot as her character ; however , it did not begin filming until the week of 6 August 2012 , after Coleman had worked on later episodes while Moffat was writing the Christmas special . The read @-@ through had taken place on 2 August 2012 . This was the first Christmas special to be filmed in BBC Wales \' new <unk> Lock studios . Scenes featuring Coleman and several guest stars in a Victorian setting were filmed in Newport , Wales , while Coleman and Smith were also spotted filming in Bristol two weeks later on 21 August . Some scenes which used snow props were filmed in Portland Square , Bristol , where filming took place overnight on 21 – 22 August 2012 . Bristol was chosen because it had Victorian @-@ era architecture . <unk> stated that his favourite set is the London Street with the back of the pub , which he said was based on a sixteenth @-@ century building in Oxford . The locations were blocked off and <unk> with fake snow . \n', ' The <unk> on the cloud was achieved through a mix of fog on the studio floor and post @-@ production special effects . Director Saul <unk> explained that it was difficult to achieve the desired look for the <unk> ; the first ones he likened to <unk> from Rainbow which was too " cute " of an appearance , and so the effects team created more menacing CGI faces . <unk> \'s introduction to the <unk> introduced two novel effects for the show . The first was a single @-@ shot camera tracking from a few feet away from the <unk> to its interior , with the implication of the <unk> \'s trans @-@ dimensional nature shown to the audience . In the following shot , the camera does a complete circle of the <unk> console , an effect not seen since the early days of the show . <unk> wanted to include this shot to further emphasize the " bigger on the inside than the outside " nature of the time machine . \n', ' In addition to the three prequel mini @-@ episodes , the cast also filmed an additional promotional video , " <unk> <unk> , " which the BBC uploaded during the days leading up to the broadcast . The video featured <unk> singing modified versions of several Christmas songs in character as <unk> as his <unk> look on , before everyone breaks character and begins laughing . \n', '', ' = = Broadcast and reception = = \n', '', ' " The <unk> " aired on BBC One on 25 December 2012 at 5 : 15 pm , the same day on BBC America in the US and Space in Canada and the next day on <unk> in Australia and on Prime in New Zealand . UK overnight ratings showed that the special had been watched by 7 @.@ 6 million viewers , coming in sixth for the night . Final consolidated figures ( not including BBC <unk> viewers ) showed that the episode was watched by 9 @.@ 87 million viewers , coming in fourth for the night . It also received an <unk> Index figure of 87 , higher than most of the Doctor Who Christmas <unk> . The <unk> version had 1 @,@ 467 @,@ 220 views , making it the most popular TV show on <unk> over Christmas . The US airing was seen by 1 @.@ 43 million viewers , with a 0 @.@ 6 rating in the demographic of adults aged 18 – 49 . \n', '', ' = = = Critical reception = = = \n', '', ' The episode received mostly positive reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian called it " actually the best Christmas Special since \' The Christmas Invasion \' " and the first to be " actually scary " , with " everything we like " about Doctor Who and Christmas . He praised Coleman \'s introduction as <unk> and the gang of <unk> , Jenny , and <unk> . IGN \'s Matt <unk> gave " The <unk> " a score of 9 @.@ 4 out of 10 , describing it as " a <unk> , <unk> <unk> in storytelling " which " refreshingly " lacked traditional Christmas references " in favour of some sparkling dialogue , gorgeous set design and fascinating characterisation " . While he felt that Grant and <unk> were <unk> , he was very positive towards Coleman \'s " unpredictable " <unk> . Radio Times reviewer Patrick <unk> was pleased with the return of the Great Intelligence despite an inconsistency in the timeline he found , and praised the " lovely images " and direction of the special , though he felt the variation of the theme music " lacks the menace " of the original . While he was positive towards <unk> , he was " <unk> by her death " as it was " plainly silly " that she did not look injured . \n', ' Nick <unk> of <unk> gave the special four and a half out of five stars , writing that " the power of emotion saves the day again " was appropriate in light of the festivities and many <unk> referenced in the story . <unk> was positive towards the " terrific " comedy with <unk> , Coleman and the " surprisingly <unk> " Grant , as well as the new title sequence and <unk> . While he wrote that the subtle <unk> of the Great Intelligence was " a <unk> more interesting than the usual \' So , we meet again ! \' <unk> " , he ultimately felt their threat " never quite comes into sharp relief " . <unk> <unk> of The Independent wrote that " The <unk> " was stronger than the previous year \'s " The Doctor , the Widow , and the <unk> " as it was connected to the overall story of the series , but " still has a way to go if it is to live up to \' A Christmas Carol \' " . Despite feeling that it was " enjoyable " , she noted that " the story feels truncated and rushed " \n', ' The Mirror \'s Jon Cooper also praised Coleman and the new side of the Doctor that was shown , comparing it to Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) challenging the <unk> Doctor ( Christopher Eccleston ) . However , he felt the character @-@ heavy story was to the <unk> of the plot , which was " a classic Who set @-@ up that ultimately suffers from a lack of explanation [ and ] more set @-@ pieces than a coherent whole " . He felt that the episode may not have been accessible for casual viewers , but offered much for fans in time for the programme \'s fiftieth anniversary . Dominic <unk> of The Daily Telegraph gave " The <unk> " three out of five stars , disappointed that it was not as scary as it had been <unk> to be . While he was positive towards Smith and the <unk> on the cloud , he criticised <unk> and the " <unk> @-@ like complexity " of the script . \n', ' The episode was nominated for the 2013 Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation ( Short Form ) , alongside " Asylum of the <unk> " and " The Angels Take Manhattan " , but lost to the Game of <unk> episode " <unk> " . \n', '', ' = = DVD release = = \n', '', ' " The <unk> " was initially released as a standalone on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the UK and North America . It was later included as part of the DVD / Blu @-@ ray box set Doctor Who : The Complete Seventh Series in September 2013 . \n', ' It has subsequently been reissued in several box set compilations , most recently alongside the Christmas <unk> between " The Christmas Invasion " and " Last Christmas " inclusive in a <unk> titled Doctor Who – The 10 Christmas <unk> on 19 October 2015 . \n', '', ' = = Soundtrack = = \n', '', ' Selected pieces of score from " The <unk> " and the preceding Christmas special , as composed by Murray Gold , were included on a soundtrack released on 21 October 2013 by Silva Screen Records . \n', '', '', ' = No. 20 Squadron RAAF = \n', '', ' No. 20 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) support squadron . Coming under the control of No. 96 Wing , it is responsible for the management of the airfield at RAAF Base <unk> , South Australia . The squadron originated as a maritime patrol unit during World War II . <unk> in August 1941 , it operated <unk> <unk> and Short Empire flying boats from bases in New Guinea , Queensland and the Northern Territory , conducting search @-@ and @-@ rescue , mine @-@ laying , anti @-@ submarine and bombing missions against Japanese targets in the Pacific theatre . Following the conclusion of hostilities , the squadron was disbanded in March 1946 . It was reactivated as an airfield support squadron in April 2015 . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', '', ' = = = World War II = = = \n', '', " No. 20 Squadron was formed at Port Moresby , New Guinea , on 1 August 1941 for a general reconnaissance role , under the command of Squadron Leader <unk> Gibson . Its establishment was six <unk> <unk> flying boats and 133 personnel , but only five aircraft ( all transferred from No. 11 Squadron ) and 55 personnel were available initially . The squadron conducted long @-@ range patrols between bases scattered around the islands to Australia 's north in conjunction with No. 11 Squadron . On 18 November , No. 20 Squadron 's Catalinas were augmented by two Short Empire flying boats transferred from No. 11 Squadron . \n", " On 25 November 1941 , following the loss of <unk> Sydney , one of No. 20 Squadron 's Catalinas was despatched to Western Australia to join a No. 11 Squadron <unk> in search @-@ and @-@ rescue missions , but they found only oil <unk> . By the outbreak of war in the Pacific , No. 20 Squadron had a strength of six Catalinas and two Empire flying boats . Its personnel at the beginning of December numbered 14 officers and 118 men . The squadron undertook its first sortie of the Pacific War on 8 December ; a <unk> located three Japanese <unk> in the vicinity of Thursday Island , Queensland . Later in the month it commenced anti @-@ submarine patrols and , in January 1942 , bombing raids against Japanese bases . As the Japanese advanced into the South West Pacific , No. 20 Squadron was also responsible for evacuating white civilians from areas threatened by invasion . On 21 January , one of its Catalinas located the Japanese fleet steaming for Rabaul and signalled a warning to the town 's Australian defenders before being shot down by anti @-@ aircraft fire ; it was the squadron 's first combat loss . \n", " In the wake of the fall of Rabaul , the Catalinas of Nos. 11 and 20 Squadrons became the RAAF 's only offensive weapon against the Japanese . Their raids on Rabaul did little to stem the Japanese advance , and in the following months Port Moresby itself was subjected to increasingly frequent attacks , which destroyed aircraft , facilities , and squadron records . In February 1942 , the Short <unk> operated by Nos. 11 and 20 Squadrons were transferred to the newly formed No. 33 ( Transport ) Squadron . No. 20 Squadron lost two Catalinas during patrols on 4 and 6 May ; the nine crewmen of the first were later found to have been captured and beheaded ; the crew of the second were also captured and subsequently disappeared without trace . \n", ' In response to the threat of invasion at Port Moresby , Nos. 11 and 20 Squadrons moved to Bowen , Queensland , on 7 May 1942 . They were soon attacking Japanese targets in Lae , <unk> and Rabaul . On 27 June , each squadron contributed an aircraft to a four @-@ hour raid over Lae and <unk> during which , as well as bombs , the RAAF crews dropped beer bottles to disrupt the enemy soldiers \' sleep — the sound they made falling through the air was , according to the official history , " something between a <unk> whistle and a scream " . By 1 July , No. 20 Squadron \'s strength was six Catalinas and 175 personnel , out of a planned establishment of nine aircraft and 415 personnel . Its prime responsibility in early 1942 was maritime reconnaissance as far as New Guinea , the Solomon Islands , and New Caledonia ; the latter half of the year saw a greater focus on night bombing . Now comprising 252 officers and men , the squadron relocated to Cairns on 11 November 1942 . From Cairns it continued to conduct reconnaissance , anti @-@ submarine and occasional bombing operations over the waters around New Guinea . Between December 1942 and March 1943 , No. 20 Squadron \'s aircraft flew a total of 9 @,@ <unk> hours and dropped 227 tons of bombs . The squadron \'s role changed in June 1943 when it commenced mine @-@ laying operations over the Netherlands East Indies and the Philippines , though it continued to make some bombing raids and supply drops . \n', " In September 1944 , No. 20 Squadron became part of No. 76 Wing RAAF , along with Nos. 42 and 43 Squadrons , and moved to Darwin , Northern Territory . All three squadrons operated Catalinas , their primary purpose being mine @-@ laying . On the night of 30 September , a <unk> of No. 20 Squadron was shot down while attacking a ship at <unk> in the Dutch East Indies ; the loss was compounded by the fact that one of the <unk> of the mining campaign , Lieutenant Commander <unk> Carr of the Royal Australian Navy , was aboard the plane and was captured by the Japanese . Another of the squadron 's Catalinas went down on the night of 27 / 28 January 1945 , possibly in a cyclone over the Timor Sea , during the campaign to mine <unk> . In March , a detachment of four No. 20 Squadron aircraft , along with four from No. 43 Squadron , laid mines off the coast of southern China and <unk> as part of a No. 76 Wing offensive in this area ; these operations were conducted from <unk> Gulf in the Philippines . One of No. 20 Squadron 's Catalinas was lost on the night of 7 / 8 March , most likely owing to bad weather rather than enemy action . Three of the squadron 's aircraft mined the entrance to Hong Kong harbour on 8 April and , on 26 May , four of its Catalinas mined <unk> harbour in China , the <unk> north that any Australian aircraft infiltrated during the war in the Pacific . Three of its aircraft flew the RAAF 's last mine @-@ laying mission on 30 July . \n", " No. 20 Squadron 's final wartime sortie was a patrol on 14 August 1945 . Following the end of the war , the squadron operated in the transport role and ferried Australian prisoners of war home from various locations in South East Asia . It relocated to RAAF Station <unk> , New South Wales , on 21 November . No. 20 Squadron flew its last mission , a transport flight to <unk> , on 21 January 1946 , and disbanded at <unk> on 27 March . \n", '', ' = = = Post @-@ war re @-@ establishment = = = \n', '', ' No. 20 Squadron was reactivated on 1 April 2015 to support airfield operations at RAAF Base <unk> , South Australia . <unk> of nine <unk> personnel and one Australian Public Service member under the command of Squadron Leader Simon Bartlett , the squadron formed part of No. 96 Wing , a component of Combat Support Group ( <unk> ) . The airfield had previously been managed under the auspices of <unk> Operational Support Group , but a command @-@ and @-@ control review commissioned by the Chief of Air Force recommended that , in common with other RAAF airfields , it should be administered by <unk> . RAAF Base <unk> , incorporating <unk> Village , was one of two Air Force units formally established on 12 January 2015 as part of a reorganisation of the <unk> Range Complex , the other unit being RAAF <unk> Test Range . \n', " The design of the reactivated squadron 's crest includes a wedge @-@ tailed eagle to denote courage and nobility , a <unk> spear <unk> to symbolise the town and its indigenous heritage , Sturt 's Desert <unk> to represent South Australia , and the <unk> star cluster , which features in the folklore of the local <unk> people . \n", '', '', ' = Light Tank Mk VII <unk> = \n', '', ' The Light Tank Mk VII ( <unk> ) , also known as the <unk> , was a British light tank produced by Vickers @-@ <unk> in the late 1930s and deployed during the World War II . The <unk> was originally designed as the latest in the line of light tanks built by the company for the British Army . It improved upon its predecessor , the Mk <unk> Light Tank , by introducing the extra firepower of a 2 @-@ pounder gun . The War Office ordered 70 tanks , an order that eventually increased to 220 . Production was delayed by several factors , and as a consequence , only 100 to 177 of the tanks were produced . \n', " The tank 's design flaws , combined with the decision by the War Office not to use light tanks in British armoured divisions , ruled out the use of <unk> in the North African Campaign . As a result , the majority of the tanks remained in Britain , although 20 were sent to the USSR as part of the <unk> @-@ <unk> program . In early 1941 , the Royal Armoured Corps formed three squadrons for use in overseas amphibious operations , one of which was equipped with <unk> . In May 1942 , a small number of <unk> formed part of the British force which participated in the invasion of Madagascar , and , in June 1942 , <unk> were attached to the 1st Airborne Division after it was decided that the design allowed its use as an air @-@ portable light tank to support British airborne forces . The <unk> were transported and landed in specially designed General Aircraft <unk> gliders . A lack of gliders prevented their participation in the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 ; instead they were attached to the new 6th Airborne Division and became part of the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment . \n", ' The division used approximately 20 <unk> during the British airborne landings in Normandy in June 1944 . The tanks were successfully landed by glider , but they did not perform well . Several were lost in accidents , and those that did see action proved to be inferior in firepower and armour to the armoured fighting vehicles of the German forces . A few days after the beginning of the operation , the tanks were removed from direct engagement with German armour and used only to provide fire support . By August 1944 , most of the <unk> in action were replaced with Cromwell cruiser tanks , and the remainder were replaced by the <unk> <unk> in December 1944 . \n', ' <unk> did not see any further combat and were deemed obsolete by 1946 ; the last was retired in 1950 . There were several variations on the <unk> design , including the <unk> self @-@ propelled gun and the Light Tank Mk VIII , but none of these were ever used in active service with the British Army . \n', '', ' = = Development history = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Initial development = = = \n', '', " The prototype of the Light Tank Mk VII ( <unk> ) , nicknamed ' <unk> ' , was first developed in 1937 by Vickers @-@ <unk> as a private venture , and was intended to be sold either to the British Army or to foreign militaries . It was to be the latest in a series of light tanks produced by the company . The tank was designed to overcome the shortcomings of insufficient armament in earlier light tanks that were fitted only with machine guns . Vickers @-@ Armstrong installed on the Mk <unk> a 2 @-@ pounder 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) main gun paired with a 7 @.@ 92 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 312 in ) <unk> machine gun , and mounted the two guns in a two @-@ man turret . The tank possessed a maximum of 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) of armour . The prototype weighed approximately 16 @,@ 800 pounds ( 7 @,@ 600 kg ) and was powered by a 165 @-@ horsepower ( 123 kW ) Meadows engine . <unk> was on eight road wheels , four per side , with no separate driver or <unk> wheels and it was capable of a 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) top speed . The Mk VII design relied on an unusual steering method and a mechanical system incorporated into earlier Vickers models . The front wheels could be steered to allow for gentle turns by <unk> the tracks . For sharper turns , the system returned to the conventional method of <unk> one track to turn the tank ; the dual system of turning was designed to lessen mechanical strain on the <unk> and reduce its power <unk> . The suspension system was also a new design that relied on struts with pockets of air for <unk> and <unk> of oil for <unk> , and each of the wheels was independently sprung . \n", ' The War Office examined the design and put the prototype through a series of trials during May and June 1938 ; the model was tested as a possible " light cruiser " since War Office light tank needs were already met by its predecessor , the Mark VI . The War Office then took the view that the tank was not acceptable as a light cruiser because the <unk> <unk> offered better speed and obstacle crossing performance . Despite this , it was decided that it was essential for some <unk> to be produced , and it was suggested that they be brought in at the end of the light tank program . Accordingly , the War Office gave the <unk> the official General Staff specification number <unk> , and , in November 1938 , accepted it for limited production after requesting a few minor changes which included the fitting of an external fuel tank to increase the tank \'s range . \n', '', ' = = = Production = = = \n', '', ' The number to be produced was subject to <unk> as the War Office <unk> in their demand ; in July 1938 , it requested that 70 of the tanks be produced , then increased the request to 120 after a three @-@ day conference in November . Production was to begin in July 1940 , but meanwhile the War Office temporarily returned to its original order of 70 before increasing the number to 100 . The number further increased to 220 after Metropolitan <unk> Carriage and <unk> , a company part owned by Vickers @-@ Armstrong that would be producing the tanks , indicated it had already ordered armour plating for that many tanks . \n', ' Production of the tank was delayed by a number of factors . The War Office put their order on hold in a post @-@ Battle of France decision to focus military production on infantry and cruiser tanks , due to the poor performance of British light tanks during that battle . Due to the shortage of more suitable tanks , light tanks that were not designed for use against German armour , were nevertheless deployed against them ; the resulting high casualties led the War Office to re @-@ evaluate the suitability of the light tank design . The pre @-@ war role of the light tank , that of reconnaissance , meanwhile had been found to be better suited to scout cars that used smaller crews and had better cross @-@ country abilities . Further delays were caused by the bombing raids of the Luftwaffe during May 1941 against the factories where the tanks were assembled . \n', " The cumulative effect of these delays resulted in the production of only a small number of Mk <unk> ; estimates place the final total produced to be between 100 and 177 . The name ' <unk> ' was given to the Mk VII , on 22 September 1941 , on the orders of the War Office . The last of the tanks were built in the first quarter of 1942 and delivered at the end of the year . \n", '', ' = = = Transfer to airborne role = = = \n', '', ' The War Office and the Army were concluding , at this point , that light tanks were a liability and too vulnerable for use in further combat , and the <unk> was considered to be obsolete . This decision may have marked the end for the <unk> in active service ; several of the tanks destined to be deployed to the Eighth Army in the Middle East for the North African Campaign were left in Britain when their cooling systems were determined to be unable to cope with the intense North African heat . \n', " The demise of <unk> was prevented by a decision made by the War Office in mid @-@ 1941 , as it was considering the equipment to be used by Britain 's fledgling airborne forces , formed in June 1940 under the orders of the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill . When selecting the equipment for the airborne forces , officials at the War Office concluded that gliders would be an integral component ; gliders would transport troops and heavy equipment , which , by 1941 , was to include artillery and some form of tank . Plans to transport a tank went through a number of revisions , but , by May 1941 , the feasibility of a 5 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 5 @.@ 4 long tons ) tank to be carried for 350 miles ( 560 km ) in a glider was accepted , although the aircraft would have to be specifically designed for the task . In a conference held on 16 January 1941 , it was decided that the General Aircraft <unk> , currently under development , would be used to transport a single <unk> tank or two Universal <unk> . The <unk> was chosen because it was an obsolete design , and was therefore available to be used by the airborne forces . \n", " Beginning in January 1944 , training exercises were conducted carrying the <unk> and their crews inside <unk> gliders . These exercises were successful ; during the training by ' C ' Squadron of the <unk> Pilot Regiment , which specialised in flying the <unk> , over 2 @,@ 800 <unk> were made with an average of 50 <unk> per crew . Only three incidents resulted in fatalities or injuries , with seven pilots killed during the training . When the <unk> was re @-@ designated as an airborne tank , several changes were made to its design . A number of tanks had their 2 pounder guns replaced with a 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimetre ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) infantry support howitzer ; these tanks were then designated as <unk> 1 <unk> ( Close Support ) . Additionally , <unk> <unk> were added to those <unk> which still possessed their 2 pounders to increase their muzzle velocity and armour penetration . \n", " The <unk> experienced several setbacks throughout its development and deployment with the Army and airborne forces . One of the major problems was the limited number of these tanks that existed after production ended in 1942 , which particularly affected the airborne forces . The transport of 20 of the tanks to the USSR under the <unk> @-@ <unk> Act depleted the number available for use by airborne forces , as did the loss of several more during Operation <unk> , the invasion of Madagascar . A Royal Armoured Corps report issued in December 1942 stated that approximately 50 <unk> were available for use . In a memorandum , dated January 1943 , by Major General George F. <unk> , commander of the 1st Airborne Division , <unk> complained that he had been informed that 70 of the tanks were available , whereas only 50 actually remained , with no reserves to replace those lost in combat . This lack of sufficient replacement reserves , combined with a War Office report that some <unk> airborne tanks would be required for the 1st Airborne Division and an unnamed airborne division to be formed in India , led to the <unk> 's eventual replacement by the US <unk> <unk> . \n", '', ' = = Performance = = \n', '', ' A number of design faults of the <unk> were revealed through its operational use . Its size limited the possible crew to three , a driver in the hull and a gunner and commander in the turret , resulting in too few crew members to operate the <unk> effectively . The gunner or commander , in addition to his own duties , had to act as <unk> for the 2 pounder , which caused delays in combat . A report on the tank written in January 1941 stated that as the commander had to both fight and control the tank , controlling a troop of <unk> during combat would be almost impossible . \n', ' Problems were also found with the <unk> <unk> fitted to the 2 @-@ pounder to increase its range and penetration power ; after they had been fitted the <unk> could not be removed , and could only fire specially designed armour @-@ piercing rounds , which took time to manufacture . \n', " The War Office also considered the <unk> 's cooling system faulty , making the tank unsuitable for service in <unk> climates , such as the Middle East and North Africa . \n", '', ' = = Operational history = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> @-@ lease = = = \n', '', ' The first <unk> were delivered to the Army in November 1940 , and were initially deployed with the 1st Armoured Division ( which was being refitted after losing the majority of its previous tanks during the Battle of France ) and the newly formed 6th Armoured Division . However , the faults discovered with the <unk> cooling system precluded them from being integrated into units that were sent to the Middle East to participate in the North African Campaign . Shortly after , all light tanks were discarded from the establishments of British armoured divisions as not suitable for further service . \n', " The <unk> remained in Britain , and would probably have been used as training vehicles before being retired from service , but on 22 June 1941 the German invasion of the USSR , Operation Barbarossa began , and the USSR became an ally of Britain . The <unk> @-@ <unk> program , begun in March 1941 by the United States of America to supply defensive materials to Britain and China , was therefore extended to the USSR . As part of the program , the British government began supplying war materials to the USSR , which in early 1942 , included a shipment of 20 <unk> , as well as a number of Valentine and Matilda Mk I Infantry tanks . The Soviet military utilised a greater number of light tanks than the British , and so could use the <unk> . When the tanks arrived in the USSR , however , it was apparent that the design problems with the cooling system were also present in cold conditions ; additionally , the cold weather had a <unk> effect on the tank 's suspension and tracks . Additional testing of the <unk> was conducted by the Soviet military and the design was admired for its <unk> , <unk> , and speed , as well its ability to run on low @-@ quality fuel , unlike contemporary Soviet designs . The <unk> of the <unk> 's armour was found to be a problem and one which could not be solved , as the weight of extra armour plating caused an unacceptable reduction in the tank 's speed . Despite these drawbacks in the <unk> 's design , Soviet authorities believed it to be comparable to the T @-@ 70 light tank in use at the time , and decided that it was suitable to be used in combat . A number of <unk> were sent to Tank Training Schools which were subsequently sent into battle , and in September 1943 two were assigned to the <unk> <unk> Tank Battalion , which was attached to the 5th Guards Tank Brigade ; both tanks were destroyed in combat , one on 30 September and the other on 2 October , the latter a casualty of artillery fire . Several were also used for propaganda purposes , appearing in photographs of Soviet troops who were fighting in the <unk> region . \n", '', ' = = = Operation <unk> = = = \n', '', " In mid @-@ 1941 , the Royal Armoured Corps in Britain created three tank squadrons for special overseas operations , known as ' A ' , ' B ' and ' C ' Special Service Squadrons . Both ' A ' and ' B ' Squadrons were equipped with Valentine Infantry tanks and Mark <unk> light tanks , but ' C ' Squadron was equipped with twelve <unk> transferred from the 2nd Armoured Brigade , 1st Armoured Division . On 31 July 1941 , ' C ' Squadron was officially activated and immediately received orders to prepare for overseas service alongside ' A ' and ' B ' Squadrons in an unspecified tropical climate . All three squadrons were transported to <unk> in Scotland for intensive training that focused on embarkation and <unk> from ships and landing craft to prepare them for action in potential amphibious operations . In early September , elements of ' C ' Squadron , including six <unk> , formed part of a force which sailed for Freetown in West Africa ; during this period of the war there were fears that the Spanish government might enter the conflict on the side of Germany , and the force was <unk> to capture a number of Spanish islands off the coast of Africa if this occurred . These fears proved <unk> , and in March 1942 , the unit returned to Britain to join the rest of the squadron in training . \n", " The next assignment , Operation <unk> , was the invasion of Madagascar , the third largest island in the world and then under <unk> French control . The Prime Minister and the Combined Chiefs of Staff decided that Madagascar should be occupied as rapidly as possible to deny the port of <unk> to Japanese naval forces , which had recently advanced into the Indian Ocean . Operation <unk> was under the command of Major General Robert G. <unk> and consisted of No. 5 Commando , 29th Independent Brigade Group , and the 17th and 13th brigade groups from 5th Infantry Division . The 29th Brigade formed the core of the invasion force due to its training in amphibious operations , and under its command was ' B ' Special Service Squadron , created by <unk> six <unk> from ' B ' Squadron and six <unk> from ' C ' Squadron into a single unit . The squadron was formed into four troops , one Headquarters troop of three <unk> and one <unk> , one of four <unk> , and two formed from the remaining five <unk> . The invasion force assembled off the west coast of the northern tip of Madagascar on 4 May , near <unk> and the bay of Diego <unk> . The invasion plan called for an amphibious assault landing on four beaches on the west side of the tip , which would allow the British forces to advance approximately 20 miles ( 32 km ) and approach <unk> from the rear . Information about the landing beaches , the defences possessed by the port , and the <unk> French defending forces was limited and vague , although it was believed that the defenders had no weapons capable of penetrating the armour of a Valentine tank . \n", " The landings began at 04 : 30 on 5 May , with 5 Commando landing at <unk> Bay and the three infantry brigades and ' B ' Squadron landing at <unk> Bay . The objective of the infantry brigades and their armoured support was to take control of <unk> and a nearby town , but although the infantry landed successfully , ' B ' Squadron had more trouble ; the area of beach designated for its landing craft was blocked for several hours after a <unk> came loose from a landing craft and became stuck in the sand . The infantry brigades advanced toward <unk> without the squadron , but eventually two <unk> and a single <unk> were dispatched in support , catching up with the lead elements of the infantry near the town of <unk> . Here the invasion force encountered the first French defences , consisting of camouflaged trenches and <unk> dug in along a ridge . The tanks attempted to breach them , but the rocky ground made <unk> difficult and they could not close with the <unk> and trenches ; they engaged a number of targets with 2 pounder and machine @-@ gun fire , but the line had to be cleared by an infantry assault later in the day . The tanks were ordered to outflank the defences and advance further into the island , and they were soon joined by two other <unk> dispatched from the beaches ; the small force continued to advance until it encountered the <unk> French main line of defence . This had been built prior to the First World War and included camouflaged <unk> , machine @-@ gun nests and dug @-@ in 75 mm artillery pieces ; the latter , although not specifically designed for an anti @-@ tank role , could penetrate the armour of both the <unk> and the <unk> . The two <unk> advanced first but were knocked out by artillery fire , and two <unk> that were moving behind them suffered the same fate ; the third <unk> retreated in order to report on the French resistance , machine <unk> a motorcycle combination and a truck it encountered on the way back . \n", " The commander of the <unk> made his report , and was then ordered to take command of four <unk> and two <unk> which had recently arrived and once again attempt to breach the French defences . The tanks followed the road leading to the defensive line and then attempted to out @-@ flank the line by advancing from the right @-@ hand side , using several hills as cover ; the artillery pieces were able to turn and face the assault , however , and one Valentine and one <unk> were hit and destroyed . The remaining tanks exchanged several <unk> of fire with the artillery pieces before retreating back to their original positions . The French line was eventually broken by 29th Brigade , aided by an amphibious assault by Royal Marines ; the remaining tanks of ' B ' Squadron , two <unk> and three <unk> , remained in defensive positions until the afternoon of 6 May , coming under sporadic artillery fire which disabled another Valentine . The squadron played no further part in the battle , as the <unk> French authorities negotiated a formal surrender the following day , although French troops would continue to engage the British occupying force in guerrilla warfare until late November . ' C ' Squadron suffered heavy casualties during the invasion ; only one Valentine and three <unk> out of twelve tanks were functional by 7 May , and the squadron had suffered seven killed and six wounded . It remained in Madagascar until early 1943 , when it was shipped to India and took part in the Burma Campaign as part of 29th Brigade . \n", '', ' = = = Operation Tonga = = = \n', '', " Because of a lack of equipment training facilities in mid @-@ 1940 , when the British airborne establishment was formed , the War Office was able to accept only 500 volunteers for training as airborne troops . Progress in setting up proper training facilities and acquiring suitable transport aircraft was so slow that the first British airborne operation , Operation <unk> , was conducted by a <unk> Commando unit . By 1942 , there existed specifically trained airborne units , including the 1st Airborne Division , and on 19 January 1942 the War Office decided that a light tank unit would be one of the support units attached to the division . This unit , designated the Light Tank Squadron , was to be formed of nineteen light tanks and would operate to the fore of the division , using their tanks ' speed to capture objectives and then holding them until relieved by other units . The obvious unit for conversion was ' C ' Special Services Squadron , as it was trained to act as an independent tank unit and , more importantly , was the only unit that was still using <unk> ; it had been re @-@ designated as an airborne tank by the War Office . ' C ' Squadron was officially transferred to the 1st Airborne Division on 24 June 1942 , bringing with it seven <unk> among its other vehicles . The unit immediately began training , but was not attached to the 1st Airborne Division for long ; during mid @-@ 1943 , the division was transported to the Middle East so it could participate in the Allied invasion of Sicily . ' C ' Squadron remained in Britain , as not enough <unk> gliders had been built by the time the division departed to transport its <unk> ; the squadron was transferred to the 6th Airborne Division , which had been raised in April 1943 , and ' C ' Squadron remained with it for the rest of the conflict . The squadron continued to train as an air @-@ portable unit , and participated in a number of exercises to prepare for its new duties , including reconnaissance of enemy positions and counter @-@ attacking enemy infantry and armour . \n", " On 13 December 1943 , the War Office decided to expand the squadron into a regiment equipped with a combination of light tanks and conventional reconnaissance vehicles such as scout cars , and on 1 April 1944 , it was re @-@ designated as the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment . The regiment consisted of a Headquarters Squadron , a Light Tank Squadron and a Reconnaissance Squadron ; two <unk> , the Mark 1 <unk> variation , were attached to the Headquarters Squadron , but the Light Tank Squadron , also known as ' A ' Squadron , received the majority of the <unk> . ' A ' Squadron had approximately nineteen <unk> split between six troops , two of which were of the <unk> variation and the rest were armed with 2 pounders fitted with <unk> <unk> . On 24 May 1944 , after participating in a further series of exercises and manoeuvres , ' A ' Squadron moved from their training area to a transit camp at <unk> <unk> airfield , while the rest of the regiment moved to RAF <unk> Norton airfield the next day ; from these two airfields , the regiment would be transported from to participate in the British airborne landings in Normandy . The operation began on the night of 5 June , with the deployment of 6th Airborne Division to eastern Normandy . It was tasked with protecting the eastern flank of the Allied <unk> landings , securing strategically important areas east of Caen , capturing several important bridges over the Caen Canal and River <unk> , and destroying a coastal artillery battery . <unk> transport aircraft were available to land all three of the division 's brigades simultaneously ; one would have to be landed in a second lift later in the day . Major General Richard Gale had initially intended for the 6th <unk> Brigade , to which the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment was attached , to be landed first ; however , aerial photography revealed that anti @-@ glider poles had been erected in the landing zone selected for the brigade . Therefore , Gale decided that the 3rd Parachute Brigade and 5th Parachute Brigade ( which did not <unk> gliders ) should land in the first lift to clear the landing zones , allowing the 6th <unk> Brigade to land in the second lift . \n", " The <unk> and <unk> gliders of the brigade landed at 21 : 00 on 6 June in a landing zone cleared of obstructions by the 5th Parachute Brigade . The primary tasks of the brigade were to bring in reinforcements and supplies , and to aid the two parachute brigades in consolidating the area held by the division ; the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Squadron was to aid in the latter task , acting as a reconnaissance force to scout out German positions and impede the movement of German forces attempting to counter @-@ attack . The <unk> of ' A ' Squadron were to play an integral part in this reconnaissance role due to their speed , but the squadron 's strength of twenty tanks was severely depleted by the time it landed in Normandy . It lost one tank before the formation landed when the <unk> broke loose of its <unk> and crashed through the nose of the glider that was carrying it , causing both to fall into the sea mid @-@ flight . The squadron 's strength was further weakened when two gliders collided with each other in the landing zone , destroying themselves and the <unk> they carried ; a third <unk> hit another <unk> as it was being <unk> and flipped the tank upside down , rendering it unusable , although the crew escaped without injury . The surviving tanks were then rendered temporarily immobile when parachute rigging lines became tangled in their <unk> , forcing their crews to cut the lines away with welding <unk> . \n", " The squadron retrieved all of the remaining <unk> and advanced to the south of the landing zone to link up with the rest of the regiment ; there , they received orders to support the 8th Parachute Battalion in the <unk> de <unk> area and conduct reconnaissance duties . After linking with the battalion , the squadron began <unk> , and engaged German infantry and armour they encountered . By the end of 7 June , two <unk> had been lost to enemy action , one destroyed by a German self @-@ propelled gun and the second by hitting a mine . The division was reinforced by British troops who were advancing from the invasion beaches and it began to push through Normandy , while the squadron continued its reconnaissance duties . At this time , Gale decided to avoid , when possible , engaging the <unk> with German armour , as they proved to be completely <unk> by the German tanks and self @-@ propelled guns , such as the Panzer IV and the <unk> III . Instead , when the division required armoured support , it summoned it from armoured units outside the division , and the <unk> were used to support infantry patrols and provide fire support . By August , in the division 's preparation for the planned breakout from the Normandy bridgehead , the majority of <unk> in ' A ' Squadron were replaced with Cromwell fast cruiser tanks ; only three <unk> remained , assigned to the Headquarters troop of ' A ' Squadron . \n", '', ' = = = Post @-@ war = = = \n', '', ' Operation Tonga was the last that <unk> saw of active combat . During the first week of October 1944 , the 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment underwent an extensive <unk> , in which it was completely <unk> , and all the remaining <unk> were retired . They were replaced with the <unk> <unk> , a purpose @-@ built airborne light tank of American design ; eight <unk> were used by the regiment in March 1945 during Operation <unk> , the airborne operation to cross the river Rhine . A report issued by the Director ( Air ) of the War Office in January 1946 confirmed that the <unk> design was considered obsolete , and any light tanks used in post @-@ war airborne formations would be entirely new in design . A small number of <unk> remained in service with the 3rd Hussars until 1949 ; a <unk> glider flight was stationed at RAF <unk> , and a troop of <unk> was kept by the regiment for training exercises with the gliders . However , glider training by the regiment was stopped in 1950 and the <unk> withdrawn from service . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', " There were several variants of the <unk> design . The first was the Light Tank Mk VIII , Vickers @-@ Armstrong 's proposed successor to the <unk> . The Mark VIII was also known as the Harry Hopkins , named after President Roosevelt 's chief diplomatic advisor , and was given the General Staff design number <unk> by the War Office . The Mark VIII was intended to improve upon the design of the <unk> in a number of areas . It had thicker armour than the <unk> , with the front hull and turret armour increased to a thickness of 38 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) and the side armour to 17 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 67 in ) , and the turret and hull given more sloped surfaces to help <unk> shells fired at the tank . The dimensions of the <unk> were also changed ; the Mark VIII was longer by 6 inches ( 0 @.@ 15 m ) , wider by 1 foot 3 inches ( 0 @.@ 38 m ) and heavier . The new tank was no longer air @-@ portable , as it was too heavy to be carried by a <unk> . The 12 @-@ cylinder engine of the <unk> was fitted to the Mark VIII , although the increased weight meant that its maximum speed decreased to 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) ; its armament also remained the same as that of the <unk> . The War Office authorised the construction of three prototype models in April 1941 . The new design was considered a success , and the Tank Board of the War Office ordered 1 @,@ 000 to be constructed in September . However , problems were encountered with further tests of the prototypes , and a report issued in December 1942 stated that production of the Mark VIII had been delayed due to developmental problems . These problems continued to persist into 1943 , when the War Office decided against using the tank in active service ; approximately 100 Mark <unk> were produced by 1945 , when production ended . \n", ' A second variant on the <unk> design was the <unk> <unk> Drive ( " <unk> DD " ) . The <unk> Drive system was invented by Nicholas <unk> , and was designed to allow a tank to \' swim \' through water and participate in amphibious operations . The system functioned by <unk> a large <unk> canvas screen around the tank above its tracks , which was supported by thirty @-@ six <unk> tubes and steel struts ; this gave the tank sufficient <unk> to float , and was then propelled along by a small propeller powered by the tank \'s engine . The screen could be collapsed by using a small explosive charge once the tank reached land . The system was fitted during June 1941 , as the <unk> was the lightest light tank available at the time ; the converted tank was successfully tested on a number of lakes and reservoirs , allowing the <unk> Drive system to be tested on heavier tanks , such as the Valentine . The system would be used during Operation <unk> , when M4 Sherman medium tanks would land on the invasion beaches . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> , known in Japan as I Love Donald Duck : Georgia <unk> no <unk> ( Japanese : <unk> <unk> , Hepburn : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> no <unk> ) , is a 1991 <unk> video game developed and published by Sega for the Sega Genesis . The game was released in Europe in 1991 , in North America on December 19 , 1991 and in Japan on December 20 , 1991 . <unk> stars Donald Duck and his three nephews , Huey , <unk> , and <unk> , as treasure @-@ hunters , and is part of a series of games published by Sega that were based on Walt Disney cartoon characters . \n', ' <unk> was released to mostly positive reviews from video game journalists . The game was universally lauded for its graphics , with magazines like Sega Pro describing them as " some of the best graphics around . " The game was also praised for its music and puzzles , as well as their clever use in the game . However , <unk> was criticized for its controls , being described by IGN as " float @-@ y " and making certain segments of the game <unk> difficult . The game was also criticized for its lack of difficulty overall as well as its lack of speech samples , which several other Genesis games of the time had . \n', '', ' = = Gameplay = = \n', '', " The player , as Donald , ventures through a variety of side @-@ scrolling levels . Generally , each level is divided into an overland part and a dungeon , such as the <unk> 's palace or the temple in which the Great Duck Treasure resides . Although the player may choose any order to play the overland sections , various obstacles prevent the player from entering the <unk> outside of a specific order . In addition to this , some levels provide the player with vital clues which solve puzzles needed to progress in later sections . Once Donald has completed the overland section of an area , he may leave by calling his nephews ' biplane , and will return to the dungeon entrance of that area if the player chooses to return . \n", ' Donald is armed with a special gun that can shoot <unk> , popcorn or bubble gum . Donald has unlimited <unk> which can only temporarily <unk> enemies ( though bosses can still be damaged with <unk> ) , and can collect popcorn and gum along the way or get the latter from <unk> <unk> . Later in the game , the <unk> is upgraded to act as a temporary platform to climb walls with and , when stuck to a passing bird , allows Donald to traverse longer distances . In <unk> , India and Egypt , Donald can also pick up <unk> <unk> which increase his temper , eventually temporarily allowing him to become <unk> , increase his speed and knock out enemies in his path . \n', '', ' = = Plot = = \n', '', " While Donald is <unk> through some books in <unk> <unk> 's library , a map falls out of a book relating to the treasure of King <unk> , ruler of the Great Duck Kingdom in ancient times . The map leads to the location of the king 's most prized possession , hidden in a secret place shortly before his death . Donald thinks this is his path to riches . Unfortunately Big Bad Pete <unk> and pursues Donald throughout the game hoping to steal the treasure . \n", ' <unk> with his nephews Huey , <unk> , and <unk> , and using the partial map from the library , Donald begins his search in <unk> , with the trail being directed to an Aztec pyramid in Mexico . Outside the pyramid , he is directed by a " sweet <unk> " to obtain a " hero key " from an explorer back in <unk> to open the pyramid . Inside the pyramid , Donald meets <unk> , who gives him a strange note and a <unk> to help him reach higher places , and tells him that <unk> <unk> is looking for him back in <unk> . Travelling across the <unk> of <unk> to meet <unk> , Donald is given <unk> \'s latest invention , <unk> <unk> that can break through walls . The last location on the partial map is Count <unk> \'s castle in Transylvania , where Donald encounters a ghost who tells him that the Count carries the real treasure map . \n', ' After defeating <unk> , Donald receives a more complete map . In India , Donald enters the palace of the <unk> , where she challenges him to defeat the tiger in her garden in exchange for a <unk> <unk> . Donald succeeds and receives the <unk> <unk> , which is the key to open a temple in Egypt . Donald is able to solve the " <unk> of the <unk> " using the note <unk> had given him , and obtains the <unk> of Ra before escaping in a mine cart . From there , he journeys to the South Pole , where he finds a key frozen in ice , and uses the <unk> of Ra to melt the ice and grab the key . The key unlocks the hold of a Viking ship , which contains an ancient diary with the secret to locating the treasure . The ship is haunted by ghosts , and the Viking captain sends Donald below decks to get rid of them . After defeating a skeletal Viking warrior , Donald returns to the deck , where the captain informs him that the diary is hidden in ice near the South Pole , and gives him an " ancient Viking <unk> " that <unk> to flying creatures . Donald then returns to the South Pole , <unk> a ride on one of Pete \'s bird <unk> to reach the diary . \n', " However , upon finding the diary , Pete shows up , holding Donald 's nephews hostage in exchange for the diary . After giving Pete the diary , Donald travels to Pete 's hideout to defeat Pete and get the diary back . The diary reveals that the map , when dipped in water , will reveal the location of the Great Duck Treasure . Donald flies to the island where the treasure is hidden and manages to evade its traps in order to reach the treasure vault . After defeating the ancient spirit guarding the treasure , Donald opens the vault only to find a simple stone statue . When the disappointed Donald returns home , Huey , <unk> and <unk> accidentally break the statue , which reveals a golden <unk> necklace was hidden inside . Donald gives the necklace to Daisy and the two fly off into the sunset together . \n", '', ' = = Development and release = = \n', '', ' <unk> was developed and published by Sega for the Sega Genesis as part of a series of games that were based on Walt Disney cartoon characters . The game was released in Europe in 1991 , in North America on December 19 , 1991 and in Japan on December 20 , 1991 . <unk> was later released as part of a bundle called The Disney Collection for Genesis in 1996 alongside Castle of Illusion . The game was also ported to the Sega Saturn and released exclusively in Japan alongside Castle of Illusion again as part of the Sega Ages series in 1998 , entitled Sega Ages : I Love Mickey Mouse . \n', '', ' = = Reception = = \n', '', ' <unk> received a mostly positive response from critics upon release . GameRankings , an aggregator for video game reviews , assigned the game a score of 77 % based on 2 reviews . Mega placed the game at # 7 in their " Top Mega Drive Games of All Time " list . <unk> magazine praised the game \'s graphics , but criticized the game \'s easy difficulty level , explaining simply that " the graphics are excellent , but the game is easy to complete . " Damian <unk> from Sega Pro also praised the graphics , stating that the game has " without [ a ] doubt some of the best graphics around " and that " the sprites and backgrounds are consistently excellent . " He also noted the game \'s various puzzles and their use in the game , explaining that " [ e ] <unk> if the ideas are not original , the way they are strung together to accelerate the pace to <unk> is nothing short of breath @-@ taking . " Levi Buchanan from IGN gave <unk> a 7 @.@ 3 / 10 , also lauding the graphics and animation as excellent and saying the music was pleasing . \n', ' <unk> criticized Donald \'s controls in certain situations in the game , as well as the difficulty of some levels and puzzles . Buchanan also criticized the controls , calling them " float @-@ y " and noted the difficulty in executing precision jumps , explaining that " [ i ] t \'s far too easy to <unk> or under @-@ shoot a narrow column and slip to your <unk> . " <unk> was also " dubious of the number of credits , " stating that the game may seem easy with unlimited continues , but that the player will " still need considerable skill to reach the treasure island . " Buchanan was disappointed with the lack of speech samples , explaining that it \'s " a bit of a drag with a character that is so defined by his voice . " Ultimately , <unk> said that " [ y ] <unk> players will instantly be <unk> by Donald \'s quest " and that " <unk> is everything a cartoon game should be and more . " Buchanan summed up the game as being a " good platformer <unk> up by some questionable controls " and recommended the game as " a <unk> enjoyable 16 @-@ bit platformer that would fit nicely in your Genesis collection . " \n', '', '', ' = <unk> colossal heads = \n', '', ' The <unk> colossal heads are at least seventeen monumental stone representations of human heads sculpted from large basalt boulders . The heads date from at least before 900 BC and are a distinctive feature of the <unk> civilization of ancient <unk> . All portray mature men with <unk> <unk> , flat <unk> , and slightly crossed eyes ; their physical characteristics correspond to a type that is still common among the inhabitants of <unk> and Veracruz . The backs of the monuments often are flat . The boulders were brought from the Sierra de los <unk> mountains of Veracruz . Given that the extremely large slabs of stone used in their production were transported over large distances , requiring a great deal of human effort and resources , it is thought that the monuments represent portraits of powerful individual <unk> rulers . Each of the known examples has a distinctive headdress . The heads were variously arranged in lines or groups at major <unk> centres , but the method and logistics used to transport the stone to these sites remain unclear . \n', ' The discovery of a colossal head at <unk> <unk> in the nineteenth century spurred the first archaeological investigations of <unk> culture by Matthew <unk> in 1938 . Seventeen confirmed examples are known from four sites within the <unk> <unk> on the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Most colossal heads were sculpted from spherical boulders but two from San Lorenzo <unk> were re @-@ carved from massive stone <unk> . An additional monument , at <unk> <unk> in Guatemala , is a throne that may have been carved from a colossal head . This is the only known example from outside the <unk> <unk> . \n', ' <unk> the monuments remains difficult because of the movement of many from their original contexts prior to archaeological investigation . Most have been dated to the Early <unk> period ( 1500 – 1000 BC ) with some to the Middle <unk> ( 1000 – 400 BC ) period . The smallest weigh 6 tons , while the largest is variously estimated to weigh 40 to 50 tons , although it was abandoned and left unfinished close to the source of its stone . \n', '', ' = = <unk> civilization = = \n', '', " The <unk> civilization developed in the lowlands of southeastern Mexico between 1500 and 400 BC . The <unk> <unk> lies on the Gulf Coast of Mexico within the states of Veracruz and <unk> , an area measuring approximately 275 kilometres ( 171 mi ) east to west and extending about 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) inland from the coast . The <unk> are regarded as the first civilization to develop in <unk> and the <unk> <unk> is one of six <unk> of civilization worldwide , the others being the <unk> <unk> culture of South America , the <unk> culture of China 's Yellow River , the Indus Valley Civilization of south Asia , the civilization of ancient Egypt and the <unk> civilization of ancient Iraq . Of these , only the <unk> civilization developed in a lowland tropical forest setting . \n", ' The <unk> were the first inhabitants of the Americas to construct monumental architecture and to settle in towns and cities . They were also the first people in the Americas to develop a sophisticated style of stone sculpture . In the first decade of the 21st century evidence emerged of <unk> writing , with the earliest examples of <unk> hieroglyphs dating to around 650 BC . Examples of script have been found on roller stamps and stone artefacts ; the texts are short and have been partially <unk> based on their similarity to other <unk> scripts . The evidence of complex society developing in the <unk> <unk> has led to the <unk> being regarded as the " Mother Culture " of <unk> , although this concept remains controversial . \n', ' Some of the <unk> \' rulers seem to have served religious functions . The city of San Lorenzo was succeeded as the main centre of the civilization by La <unk> in about 900 BC , with <unk> <unk> and <unk> de los <unk> possibly sharing the role ; other urban centres were much less significant . The nature and degree of the control exercised by the centres over a widespread rural population remains unclear . Very fine <unk> art , much clearly made for an elite , survives in several forms , notably <unk> figurines , and larger sculptures such as The <unk> . The figurines have been recovered in large numbers and are mostly in pottery ; these were presumably widely available to the population . Together with these , of particular relevance to the colossal heads are the " <unk> @-@ style masks " in stone , so called because none have yet been excavated in circumstances that allow the proper archaeological identification of an <unk> context . These evocative stone face masks present both similarities and differences to the colossal heads . Two thirds of <unk> monumental sculpture represents the human form , and the colossal heads fall within this major theme of <unk> art . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' The colossal heads cannot be precisely dated . However , the San Lorenzo heads were buried by 900 BC , indicating that their period of manufacture and use was earlier still . The heads from <unk> <unk> had been moved from their original context before they were investigated by archaeologists and the heads from La <unk> were found partially exposed on the modern ground surface . The period of production of the colossal heads is therefore unknown , as is whether it spanned a century or a millennium . Estimates of the time span during which colossal heads were produced vary from 50 to 200 years . The San Lorenzo heads are believed to be the oldest , and are the most <unk> executed . All of the stone heads have been assigned to the <unk> period of <unk> chronology , generally to the Early <unk> ( 1500 – 1000 BC ) , although the two <unk> <unk> heads and the La <unk> Head are attributed to the Middle <unk> ( 1000 – 400 BC ) . \n', '', ' = = Characteristics = = \n', '', ' <unk> colossal heads vary in height from 1 @.@ 47 to 3 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 @.@ 8 to 11 @.@ 2 ft ) and weigh between 6 and 50 tons . All of the <unk> colossal heads depict mature men with flat <unk> and <unk> <unk> ; the eyes tend to be slightly crossed . The general physical characteristics of the heads are of a type that is still common among people in the <unk> region in modern times . The backs of the heads are often flat , as if the monuments were originally placed against a wall . All examples of <unk> colossal heads wear distinctive <unk> that probably represent cloth or animal hide originals . Some examples have a tied knot at the back of the head , and some are decorated with feathers . A head from La <unk> is decorated with the head of a bird . There are similarities between the <unk> on some of the heads that has led to speculation that specific <unk> may represent different dynasties , or perhaps identify specific rulers . Most of the heads wear large <unk> inserted into the ear lobes . \n', ' All of the heads are realistic , <unk> and <unk> descriptions of the men . It is likely that they were portraits of living ( or recently deceased ) rulers well known to the <unk> . Each head is distinct and <unk> , displaying <unk> features . They were once thought to represent <unk> although this theory is no longer widely held ; it is possible , however , that they represent rulers equipped for the <unk> <unk> . <unk> expressions depicted on the heads vary from stern through placid to smiling . The most <unk> <unk> art is the earliest , appearing suddenly without surviving <unk> , with a tendency towards more stylised sculpture as time progressed . Some surviving examples of wooden sculpture recovered from El <unk> demonstrate that the <unk> are likely to have created many more <unk> sculptures than works sculpted from stone . \n', ' In the late nineteenth century , José <unk> y Serrano described a colossal head as having " Ethiopian " features and speculations that the <unk> had African origins resurfaced in 1960 in the work of Alfonso <unk> <unk> and in the 1970s in the writings of Ivan van <unk> . Such speculation is not taken seriously by <unk> scholars such as Richard <unk> and Ann <unk> . \n', ' Although all the colossal heads are broadly similar , there are distinct stylistic differences in their execution . One of the heads from San Lorenzo bears traces of plaster and red paint , suggesting that the heads were originally brightly decorated . Heads did not just represent individual <unk> rulers ; they also incorporated the very concept of rulership itself . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' The production of each colossal head must have been carefully planned , given the effort required to ensure the necessary resources were available ; it seems likely that only the more powerful <unk> rulers were able to <unk> such resources . The workforce would have included <unk> , labourers , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and other <unk> producing the tools to make and move the monument , in addition to the support needed to feed and otherwise attend to these workers . The seasonal and agricultural cycles and river levels needed to have been taken into account to plan the production of the monument and the whole project may well have taken years from beginning to end . \n', ' Archaeological investigation of <unk> basalt workshops suggest that the colossal heads were first roughly shaped using direct percussion to chip away both large and small <unk> of stone . The sculpture was then refined by <unk> the surface using <unk> , which were generally rounded <unk> that could be of the same basalt as the monument itself , although this was not always the case . <unk> were found in association with workshops at San Lorenzo , indicating their use in the finishing of fine detail . <unk> colossal heads were fashioned as in @-@ the @-@ round monuments with varying levels of relief on the same work ; they tended to feature higher relief on the face and lower relief on the <unk> and <unk> . Monument 20 at San Lorenzo is an extensively damaged throne with a figure emerging from a niche . Its sides were broken away and it was dragged to another location before being abandoned . It is possible that this damage was caused by the initial stages of re @-@ carving the monument into a colossal head but that the work was never completed . \n', ' All seventeen of the confirmed heads in the <unk> <unk> were sculpted from basalt mined in the Sierra de los <unk> mountains of Veracruz . Most were formed from coarse <unk> dark grey basalt known as <unk> <unk> basalt after a volcano in the range . <unk> have proposed that large <unk> <unk> basalt boulders found on the southeastern slopes of the mountains are the source of the stone for the monuments . These boulders are found in an area affected by large <unk> ( volcanic mudslides ) that carried substantial blocks of stone down the mountain slopes , which suggests that the <unk> did not need to quarry the raw material for <unk> the heads . Roughly spherical boulders were carefully selected to mimic the shape of a human head . The stone for the San Lorenzo and La <unk> heads was transported a considerable distance from the source . The La <unk> head was found on El <unk> hill in the Sierra de los <unk> and the stone from <unk> <unk> <unk> Head 1 and <unk> <unk> Head 1 ( also known as <unk> <unk> Monuments A and Q ) came from the same hill . \n', ' The boulders were transported over 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) from the source of the stone . The exact method of transportation of such large masses of rock are unknown , especially since the <unk> lacked <unk> of burden and functional wheels , and they were likely to have used water transport whenever possible . Coastal currents of the Gulf of Mexico and in river estuaries might have made the <unk> transport of monuments weighing 20 tons or more impractical . Two badly damaged <unk> sculptures depict rectangular stone blocks bound with ropes . A largely destroyed human figure rides upon each block , with their legs hanging over the side . These sculptures may well depict <unk> rulers overseeing the transport of the stone that would be fashioned into their monuments . When transport over land was necessary , the <unk> are likely to have used <unk> , ramps and roads to facilitate moving the heads . The regional terrain offers significant obstacles such as swamps and floodplains ; avoiding these would have necessitated crossing undulating hill country . The construction of temporary <unk> using the suitable and plentiful floodplain soils would have allowed a direct route across the floodplains to the San Lorenzo Plateau . Earth structures such as mounds , platforms and <unk> upon the plateau demonstrate that the <unk> possessed the necessary knowledge and could commit the resources to build large @-@ scale earthworks . \n', ' The flat backs of many of the colossal heads represented the flat bases of the monumental <unk> from which they were reworked . Only four of the seventeen <unk> heads do not have flattened backs , indicating the possibility that the majority were reworked monuments . Alternatively , the backs of many of these massive monuments may have been flattened to ease their transport , providing a stable form for <unk> the monuments with ropes . Two heads from San Lorenzo have traces of niches that are characteristic of monumental <unk> <unk> and so were definitely reworked from earlier monuments . \n', '', ' = = Known monuments = = \n', '', ' Seventeen confirmed examples are known . An additional monument , at <unk> <unk> in Guatemala , is a throne that may have been carved from a colossal head . This is the only known example outside of the <unk> <unk> on the Gulf Coast of Mexico . Possible fragments of additional colossal heads have been recovered at San Lorenzo and at San Fernando in <unk> . <unk> colossal stone heads are also known in the Southern Maya area where they are associated with the <unk> style of sculpture . Although some arguments have been made that they are pre @-@ <unk> , these latter monuments are generally believed to be influenced by the <unk> style of sculpture . \n', '', ' = = = San Lorenzo = = = \n', '', ' The ten colossal heads from San Lorenzo originally formed two roughly parallel lines running north @-@ south across the site . Although some were recovered from <unk> , they were found close to their original <unk> and had been buried by local erosion . These heads , together with a number of monumental stone <unk> , probably formed a processional route across the site , powerfully displaying its dynastic history . Two of the San Lorenzo heads had been re @-@ carved from older <unk> . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 1 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 1 ) was lying facing upwards when excavated . The erosion of a path passing on top of the monument uncovered its eye and led to the discovery of the <unk> site . <unk> Head 1 is 2 @.@ 84 metres ( 9 @.@ 3 ft ) high ; it measures 2 @.@ 11 metres ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) wide and it weighs 25 @.@ 3 tons . The monument was discovered partially buried at the edge of a gully by Matthew <unk> in 1945 . When discovered it was lying on its back , looking upwards . It was associated with a large number of broken ceramic vessels and figurines . The majority of these ceramic remains have been dated to between 800 and 400 BC ; some pieces have been dated to the Villa Alta phase ( Late Classic period , 800 – 1000 AD ) . The headdress possesses a plain band that is tied at the back of the head . The upper portion of the headdress is decorated with a U @-@ shaped motif . This element descends across the front of the headdress , terminating on the forehead . On the front portion it is decorated with five semicircular motifs . The <unk> piece does not meet the horizontal band , leaving a space between the two pieces . On each side of the face a strap descends from the headdress and passes in front of the ear . The forehead is wrinkled in a <unk> . The lips are slightly parted without revealing the teeth . The <unk> are pronounced and the ears are particularly well executed . The face is slightly asymmetric , which may be due to error on the part of the <unk> or may accurately reflect the physical features of the portrait \'s subject . The head has been moved to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> ( " <unk> Museum of <unk> " ) . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 2 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 2 ) was reworked from a monumental throne . The head stands 2 @.@ 69 metres ( 8 @.@ 8 ft ) high and measures 1 @.@ 83 metres ( 6 @.@ 0 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 05 metres ( 3 @.@ 4 ft ) deep ; it weighs 20 tons . <unk> Head 2 was discovered in 1945 when Matthew <unk> \'s guide cleared away some of the vegetation and mud that covered it . The monument was found lying on its back , facing the sky , and was excavated in 1946 by <unk> and Philip <unk> . In 1962 the monument was removed from the San Lorenzo plateau in order to put it on display as part of " The <unk> tradition " exhibition at the Museum of Fine Arts in Houston in 1963 . San Lorenzo <unk> Head 2 is currently in the <unk> <unk> de <unk> in Mexico City . The head was associated with a number of ceramic finds ; they have been dated to the Early <unk> and Late Classic periods . <unk> Head 2 wears a complex headdress that sports a horizontal band tied at the back of the head ; this is decorated with three bird \'s heads that are located above the forehead and temples . The <unk> piece is formed from six strips running towards the back of the head . The front of the headdress above the horizontal band is plain . Two short <unk> hang down from the headdress in front of the ears . The ear jewellery is formed by large <unk> <unk> or framed discs . The left and right ornaments are different , with radial lines on the left <unk> , a feature absent on the right <unk> . The head is badly damaged due to an unfinished reworking process . This process has <unk> the entire face with at least 60 smaller <unk> and 2 larger holes . The surviving features appear to depict an ageing man with the forehead <unk> into a <unk> . The lips are thick and slightly parted to reveal the teeth ; the head has a pronounced chin . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 3 is also known as San Lorenzo Monument 3 . The head measures 1 @.@ 78 metres ( 5 @.@ 8 ft ) high by 1 @.@ 63 metres ( 5 @.@ 3 ft ) wide by 0 @.@ 95 metres ( 3 @.@ 1 ft ) deep and weighs 9 @.@ 4 tons . The head was discovered in a deep gully by Matthew <unk> in 1946 ; it was found lying face down and its excavation was difficult due to the wet conditions in the gully . The monument was found 0 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 mi ) southwest of the main mound at San Lorenzo , however , its original location is unknown ; erosion of the gully may have resulted in significant movement of the sculpture . Head 3 has been moved to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> . The headdress is complex , with the horizontal basal band being formed by four horizontal <unk> , with diagonal folds above each eye . A small <unk> tops the headdress . A large flap formed of four <unk> drops down both sides of the head , completely covering the ears . The face has a typically <unk> brow and , unusually , has clearly defined eyelids . The lips are thick and slightly parted ; the front of the lower lip has broken away completely , and the lower front of the headdress is pitted with 27 irregularly spaced artificial depressions . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 4 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 4 ) weighs 6 tons and has been moved to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> . <unk> Head 4 is 1 @.@ 78 metres ( 5 @.@ 8 ft ) high , 1 @.@ 17 metres ( 3 @.@ 8 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 95 metres ( 3 @.@ 1 ft ) deep . The head was discovered by Matthew <unk> in 1946 , 550 metres ( 600 yd ) northwest of the principal mound , at the edge of a gully . When excavated , it was found to be lying on its right @-@ hand side and in a very good state of preservation . <unk> materials excavated with the head became mixed with ceramics associated with Head 5 , making ceramic dating of the monument difficult . The headdress is decorated with a horizontal band formed of four sculpted <unk> , similar to those of Head 3 . On the right @-@ hand side , three <unk> descend from the upper portion of the headdress ; they terminate in a total of eight strips that hang down across the horizontal band . These <unk> are judged to represent hair rather than <unk> . Also on the right hand side , two <unk> descend across the ear and continue to the base of the monument . On the left @-@ hand side , three vertical <unk> descend across the ear . The <unk> is only visible on the right hand side ; it is formed of a plain disc and <unk> . The face is that of an ageing man with a <unk> forehead , low <unk> and a prominent chin . The lips are thick and slightly parted . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 5 is also known as San Lorenzo Monument 5 . The monument stands 1 @.@ 86 metres ( 6 @.@ 1 ft ) high and measures 1 @.@ 47 metres ( 4 @.@ 8 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 15 metres ( 3 @.@ 8 ft ) deep . It weighs 11 @.@ 6 tons . The head was discovered by Matthew <unk> in 1946 , face down in a gully to the south of the principal mound . The head is particularly well executed and is likely to have been found close to its original location . <unk> recovered during its excavation became mixed with those from the excavation of Head 4 . The mixed ceramics have been dated to the San Lorenzo and Villa Alta phases ( approximately 1400 – 1000 BC and 800 – 1000 AD respectively ) . <unk> Head 5 is particularly well preserved , although the back of the headdress band was damaged when the head was moved from the archaeological site . The band of the headdress is set at an angle and has a notch above the bridge of the nose . The headdress is decorated with jaguar paws ; this general identification of the decoration is contested by <unk> de la <unk> since the " paws " have three claws each ; she identifies them as the claws of a bird of prey . At the back of the head , ten <unk> strips form a net decorated with disc motifs . Two short <unk> descend from the headdress in front of the ears . The ears are adorned with disc @-@ shaped <unk> with <unk> . The face is that of an ageing man with <unk> under the eyes and across the bridge of the nose , and a forehead that is <unk> in a <unk> . The lips are slightly parted . <unk> Head 5 has been moved to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> . \n', " San Lorenzo <unk> Head 6 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 17 ) is one of the smaller examples of colossal heads , standing 1 @.@ 67 metres ( 5 @.@ 5 ft ) . It measures 1 @.@ 41 metres ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 26 metres ( 4 @.@ 1 ft ) deep and is estimated to weigh between 8 and 10 tons . The head was discovered by a local <unk> and was excavated in 1965 by Luis <unk> and <unk> <unk> Chan . The head had collapsed into a ravine under its own weight and was found face down on its left hand side . In 1970 it was transported to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York for the museum 's centenary exhibition . After its return to Mexico , it was placed in the <unk> <unk> de <unk> in Mexico City . It is sculpted with a net @-@ like head covering joined together with sculpted beads . A covering descends from under the headdress to cover the back half of the neck . The <unk> is divided into four strips and begins above the right ear , extending around the entire head . A short strap descends from either side of the head to the ear . The ear ornaments are complex and are larger at the front of the ear than at the back . The face is that of an ageing male with the forehead <unk> in a <unk> , <unk> under the eyes , <unk> <unk> and deep <unk> on either side of the nose . The face is somewhat asymmetric , possibly due to errors in the execution of the monument . \n", ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 7 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 53 ) measures 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) high by 1 @.@ 85 metres ( 6 @.@ 1 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 @.@ 4 ft ) deep and weighs 18 tons . San Lorenzo <unk> Head 7 was reworked from a monumental throne ; it was discovered by a joint archaeological project by the <unk> <unk> de <unk> e Historia and Yale University , as a result of a <unk> survey . It was buried at a depth of less than 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) and was lying facing upwards , leaning slightly northwards on its right hand side . The head is poorly preserved and has suffered both from erosion and deliberate damage . The headdress is decorated with a pair of human hands ; a feathered ornament is carved at the back of the <unk> and two discs adorn the front . A short strap descends from the <unk> and hangs in front of the right ear . The head sports large <unk> that completely cover the <unk> , although severe erosion makes their exact form difficult to distinguish . The face has <unk> between the nose and <unk> , <unk> <unk> and deep @-@ set eyes ; the lips are badly damaged and the mouth is open , displaying the teeth . In 1986 the head was transported to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 8 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 61 ) stands 2 @.@ 2 metres ( 7 @.@ 2 ft ) high ; it measures 1 @.@ 65 metres ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) deep and weighs 13 tons . It is one of the finest examples of an <unk> colossal head . It was found lying on its side to the south of a monumental throne . The monument was discovered at a depth of 5 metres ( 16 ft ) during a <unk> survey of the site in 1968 ; it has been dated to the Early <unk> . After discovery it was initially reburied ; it was moved to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> in 1986 . The headdress is decorated with the <unk> or claws of either a jaguar or an eagle . It has a <unk> and a cover that descends from under the headdress proper behind the ears . Two short <unk> descend in front of the ears . The head sports large ear ornaments in the form of <unk> . The face is that of a mature male with <unk> <unk> and <unk> between these and the nose . The forehead is gathered in a <unk> . The mouth is slightly parted to reveal the teeth . Most of the head is carved in a realistic manner , the exception being the ears . These are stylised and represented by one question mark shape contained within another . The head is very well preserved and displays a fine finish . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 9 is also known as San Lorenzo Monument 66 . It measures 1 @.@ 65 metres ( 5 @.@ 4 ft ) high by 1 @.@ 36 metres ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 17 metres ( 3 @.@ 8 ft ) deep . The head was exposed in 1982 by erosion of the <unk> at San Lorenzo ; it was found leaning slightly on its right hand side and facing upwards , half covered by the collapsed side of a gully and washed by a stream . Although it was documented by archaeologists , it remained for some time in its place of discovery before being moved to the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> . The headdress is of a single piece without a distinct <unk> . The sides display features that are possibly intended to represent long hair trailing to the bottom of the monument . The <unk> are rectangular plates with an additional <unk> element at the front . The head is also depicted wearing a nose @-@ ring . The face is smiling and has <unk> under the eyes and at the edge of the mouth . It has <unk> <unk> and wide eyes . The mouth is closed and the upper lip is badly damaged . The sculpture suffered some mutilation in antiquity , with nine pits <unk> into the face and headdress . \n', ' San Lorenzo <unk> Head 10 ( also known as San Lorenzo Monument 89 ) has been moved to the <unk> <unk> de San Lorenzo <unk> near <unk> . It stands 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) tall and measures 1 @.@ 43 metres ( 4 @.@ 7 ft ) wide by 0 @.@ 92 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) deep ; it weighs 8 tons . The head was discovered by a <unk> survey in 1994 ; it was found buried , lying face upwards in the bottom of a ravine and was excavated by Ann <unk> . The headdress is formed of 92 circular beads that completely cover the upper part of the head and descend across the sides and back . Above the forehead is a large element forming a three @-@ toed foot with long nails , possibly the foot of a bird . The head wears large <unk> that <unk> beyond the beads of the headdress . The <unk> have the form of a rounded square with a circular sunken central portion . The face is that of a mature man with the mouth closed , <unk> <unk> and lines under the eyes . The mouth is <unk> carved and the head possesses a pronounced chin . \n', '', ' = = = La <unk> = = = \n', '', ' Three of the La <unk> heads were found in a line running east @-@ west in the northern Complex I ; all three faced northwards , away from the city centre . The other head was found in Complex B to the south of the Great Pyramid , in a plaza that included a number of other sculptures . The latter , the first of the La <unk> heads to be discovered , was found during archaeological exploration of La <unk> in 1925 ; the other three remained unknown to archaeologists until a local boy guided Matthew <unk> to them while he was excavating the first head in 1940 . They were located approximately 0 @.@ 9 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 56 mi ) to the north of Monument 1 . \n', " La <unk> Monument 1 is speculated to have been the portrait of La <unk> 's final ruler . Monument 1 measures 2 @.@ 41 metres ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high by 2 @.@ 08 metres ( 6 @.@ 8 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 95 metres ( 6 @.@ 4 ft ) deep ; it weighs 24 tons . The front of the headdress is decorated with three motifs that apparently represent the claws or fangs of an animal . Above these symbols is an angular U @-@ shaped decoration descending from the <unk> . On each side of the monument a strap descends from the headdress , passing in front of the ear . Each ear has a prominent ear ornament that descends from the <unk> to the base of the monument . The features are those of a mature man , with <unk> around the mouth , eyes and nose . Monument 1 is the best preserved head at La <unk> but has suffered from erosion , particularly at the back . The head was first described by Franz <unk> and Oliver La <unk> who investigated the La <unk> remains on behalf of Tulane University in 1925 . When discovered it was half @-@ buried ; its massive size meant that the <unk> were unable to excavate it completely . Matthew <unk> fully excavated the monument in 1940 , after clearing the thick vegetation that had covered it in the intervening years . Monument 1 has been moved to the <unk> @-@ <unk> La <unk> in <unk> . The head was found in its original context ; associated finds have been <unk> dated to between 1000 and 600 BC . \n", " La <unk> Monument 2 measures 1 @.@ 63 metres ( 5 @.@ 3 ft ) high by 1 @.@ 35 metres ( 4 @.@ 4 ft ) wide by 0 @.@ 98 metres ( 3 @.@ 2 ft ) deep ; the head weighs 11 @.@ 8 tons . The face has a broadly smiling expression that reveals four of the upper teeth . The <unk> are given prominence by the action of smiling ; the brow that is normally visible in other heads is covered by the rim of the headdress . The face is badly eroded , <unk> the features . In addition to the severe erosion damage , the upper lip and a part of the nose have been deliberately <unk> . The head was found in its original context a few metres north of the northwest corner of pyramid @-@ platform A @-@ 2 . <unk> dating of the monument 's context dates it to between 1000 and 600 BC . Monument 2 has suffered erosion damage from its exposure to the elements prior to discovery . The head has a prominent headdress but this is badly eroded and any individual detail has been erased . A strap descends in front of the ear on each side of the head , descending as far as the <unk> . The head is adorned with ear ornaments in the form of a disc that covers the <unk> , with an associated clip or <unk> . The surviving details of the headdress and <unk> are <unk> similar to those of <unk> <unk> Monument A. The head has been moved to the <unk> del <unk> de <unk> in <unk> . \n", ' La <unk> Monument 3 stands 1 @.@ 98 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) high and measures 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) wide by 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep ; it weighs 12 @.@ 8 tons . Monument 3 was located a few metres to the east of Monument 2 , but was moved to the <unk> @-@ <unk> La <unk> in <unk> . Like the other La <unk> heads , its context has been <unk> dated to between 1000 and 600 BC . It appears unfinished and has suffered severe damage through <unk> , making analysis difficult . It had a large headdress that reaches to the eyebrows but any details have been lost through erosion . <unk> descend in front of each ear and continue to the base of the monument . The ears are wearing large flattened rings that overlap the <unk> ; they probably represent <unk> ornaments of a type that have been recovered in the <unk> region . Although most of the facial detail is lost , the <unk> of the bridge of the nose is still evident , a feature that is common to the <unk> expressions of the other <unk> colossal heads . \n', ' La <unk> Monument 4 measures 2 @.@ 26 metres ( 7 @.@ 4 ft ) high by 1 @.@ 98 metres ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) wide and 1 @.@ 86 metres ( 6 @.@ 1 ft ) deep . It weighs 19 @.@ 8 tons . It was found a few metres to the west of Monument 2 and has been moved to the <unk> @-@ <unk> La <unk> . As with the other heads in the group , its archaeological context has been <unk> dated to between 1000 and 600 BC . The headdress is elaborate and , although damaged , various details are still discernible . The base of the headdress is formed by three horizontal strips running over the forehead . One side is decorated with a double @-@ disc motif that may have been repeated on the other ; if so , damage to the right side has obliterated any trace of it . The top of the headdress is decorated with the <unk> foot of a bird of prey . Either <unk> or <unk> of hair descend on either side of the face , from the headdress to the base of the monument . Only one <unk> survives ; it is flat , in the form of a rounded square , and is decorated with a cross motif . The ears have been completely eroded away and the lips are damaged . The surviving features display a <unk> and <unk> around the nose and <unk> . The head displays prominent teeth . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The two heads at <unk> <unk> , with the La <unk> head , are <unk> distinct from the other known examples . <unk> de la <unk> views them as a late regional survival of an older tradition while other scholars argue that they are merely the kind of regional variant to be expected in a frontier settlement . These heads are sculpted with relatively simple <unk> ; they have squat , wide proportions and distinctive facial features . The two <unk> <unk> heads are the earliest known stone monuments from the site . The discovery of one of the <unk> <unk> heads in the nineteenth century led to the first archaeological investigations of <unk> culture , carried out by Matthew <unk> in 1938 . \n', ' <unk> <unk> Monument A ( also known as <unk> <unk> <unk> Head 1 ) was the first colossal head to be found , discovered by accident in the middle of the nineteenth century , 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to the north of the modern village of <unk> <unk> . After its discovery it remained half @-@ buried until it was excavated by Matthew <unk> in 1939 . At some point it was moved to the plaza of the modern village , probably in the early 1960s . It has since been moved to the <unk> <unk> de <unk> <unk> . Monument A stands 1 @.@ 47 metres ( 4 @.@ 8 ft ) tall ; it measures 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 45 metres ( 4 @.@ 8 ft ) deep , and is estimated to weigh 7 @.@ 8 tons . The head is sculpted with a simple headdress with a wide band that is otherwise unadorned , and wears rectangular ear ornaments that project forwards onto the <unk> . The face is carved with deep <unk> between the <unk> and the nose and around the mouth ; the forehead is <unk> into a <unk> . The upper lip has suffered recent damage , with the left portion <unk> away . \n', ' <unk> <unk> Monument Q ( also known as the <unk> Head and <unk> <unk> <unk> Head 2 ) measures 1 @.@ 45 metres ( 4 @.@ 8 ft ) high by 1 @.@ 34 metres ( 4 @.@ 4 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 26 metres ( 4 @.@ 1 ft ) deep and weighs 8 @.@ 5 tons . Its exact date of discovery is unknown but is estimated to have been some time in the 1940s , when it was struck by machinery being used to clear vegetation from <unk> hill . Monument Q was the eleventh colossal head to be discovered . It was moved to the plaza of Santiago <unk> in 1951 and remains there to this day . Monument Q was first described by Williams and <unk> in an article published in 1965 . The headdress is decorated with a frontal tongue @-@ shaped ornament , and the back of the head is sculpted with seven <unk> of hair bound with <unk> . A strap descends from each side of the headdress , passing over the ears and to the base of the monument . The face has pronounced <unk> around the nose , mouth and eyes . \n', '', ' = = = La <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The La <unk> region was the source of the basalt used for carving all of the colossal heads in the <unk> <unk> . The La <unk> colossal head was discovered in 1970 and was the fifteenth to be recorded . It was discovered in a mountain pass in the Sierra de los <unk> , on the north side of El <unk> volcano near to Santiago <unk> . The head was largely buried when found ; excavations uncovered a Late Classic ( 600 – 900 AD ) offering associated with the head consisting of a ceramic vessel and a 12 @-@ <unk> ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long <unk> knife placed pointing northwards towards the head . The offering is believed to have been deposited long after the head was sculpted . The La <unk> head has been moved from its original location to the main plaza at Santiago . \n', ' The La <unk> head is more or less rounded and measures 3 by 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 by 9 @.@ 8 ft ) by 3 @.@ 4 metres ( 11 ft ) high , making it the largest known head . This massive sculpture is estimated to weigh 40 tons . It is <unk> distinct from the other examples , and <unk> de la <unk> placed it late in the <unk> time frame . The characteristics of the sculpture have led to some investigators suggesting that it represents a deceased person . Norman Hammond argues that the apparent stylistic differences of the monument stem from its unfinished state rather than its late production . The eyes of the monument are closed , the nose is flattened and lacks nostrils and the mouth was not sculpted in a realistic manner . The headdress is in the form of a plain horizontal band . \n', ' The original location of the La <unk> head was not a major archaeological site and it is likely that the head was either abandoned at its source or during transport to its intended destination . Various features of the head suggest that it was unfinished , such as a lack of symmetry below the mouth and an area of rough stone above the base . Rock was not removed from around the <unk> as on other heads , and does not narrow towards the base . Large parts of the monument seem to be <unk> out without finished detail . The right hand <unk> also appears incomplete ; the forward portion is marked with a sculpted line while the rear portion has been sculpted in relief , probably indicating that the right cheek and eye area were also unfinished . The La <unk> head was almost certainly carved from a raw <unk> rather than being sculpted from a throne . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> Monument 23 dates to the Middle <unk> period , and is found in <unk> <unk> , an important city in the foothills of the <unk> Pacific coast , in the modern department of <unk> . It appears to be an <unk> @-@ style colossal head re @-@ carved into a niche figure sculpture . If originally a colossal head then it would be the only known example from outside the <unk> <unk> . \n', " Monument 23 is sculpted from <unk> and falls in the middle of the size range for confirmed colossal heads . It stands 1 @.@ 84 metres ( 6 @.@ 0 ft ) high and measures 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) wide by 1 @.@ 56 metres ( 5 @.@ 1 ft ) deep . Like the examples from the <unk> <unk> , the monument features a flat back . Lee Parsons contests John Graham 's identification of Monument 23 as a re @-@ carved colossal head ; he views the side ornaments , identified by Graham as ears , as rather the <unk> eyes of an open @-@ <unk> monster <unk> upwards . <unk> this , James Porter has claimed that the re @-@ carving of the face of a colossal head into a niche figure is clearly evident . \n", ' Monument 23 was damaged in the mid @-@ twentieth century by a local <unk> who attempted to break its exposed upper portion using a steel <unk> . As a result , the top is fragmented , although the broken pieces were recovered by archaeologists and have been put back into place . \n', '', ' = = Collections = = \n', '', ' All of the 17 confirmed colossal heads remain in Mexico . Two heads from San Lorenzo are on permanent display at the <unk> <unk> de <unk> in Mexico City . Seven of the San Lorenzo heads are on display in the <unk> de <unk> de <unk> . Five of them are in <unk> 1 , one is in <unk> 2 and one is in <unk> 1 . The remaining San Lorenzo head is in the <unk> <unk> de San Lorenzo <unk> near <unk> . All four heads from La <unk> are now in <unk> , the state capital of <unk> . Three are in the <unk> @-@ <unk> La <unk> and one in the <unk> del <unk> de <unk> . Two heads are on display in the plaza of Santiago <unk> ; one from <unk> <unk> and the La <unk> Head . The other <unk> <unk> head is in the <unk> <unk> de <unk> <unk> . \n', ' Several colossal heads have been loaned to temporary exhibitions abroad ; San Lorenzo <unk> Head 6 was loaned to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York in 1970 . San Lorenzo colossal heads 4 and 8 were lent to the <unk> Art of Ancient Mexico exhibition in the National Gallery of Art , Washington , D.C. that ran from 30 June to 20 October 1996 . San Lorenzo Head 4 was again loaned in 2005 , this time to the de Young Museum in San Francisco . The de Young Museum was loaned San Lorenzo colossal heads 5 and 9 for its <unk> : <unk> <unk> of Ancient Mexico exhibition , which ran from 19 February to 8 May 2011 . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' On 12 January 2009 , at least three people , including two <unk> and one American , entered the <unk> @-@ <unk> La <unk> in <unk> and damaged just under 30 archaeological pieces , including the four La <unk> colossal heads . The <unk> were all members of an evangelical church and appeared to have been carrying out a supposed pre @-@ Columbian ritual , during which salts , grape juice and oil were thrown on the heads . It was estimated that 300 @,@ 000 pesos ( US $ 21 @,@ 900 ) would be needed to repair the damage , and the restoration process would last four months . The three <unk> were released soon after their arrest after paying 330 @,@ 000 pesos each . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' Although not all of the replicas were placed by him , the majority of replicas around the world were placed under the leadership of Miguel <unk> <unk> , former governor of the state of Veracruz . The following is a list of replicas and their locations within the United States : \n', ' Austin , Texas . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 1 was placed in the Teresa <unk> Long Institute of Latin American Studies at the University of Texas in November 2008 . \n', ' Chicago , Illinois . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 8 made by <unk> <unk> <unk> was placed in the Field Museum of Natural History in 2000 . \n', " <unk> , California . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 5 was donated to <unk> in 1989 , originally intended to be placed in <unk> Park . Due to concerns over potential <unk> it was instead installed outside the police station . It was removed in 2011 and relocated to <unk> 's Glen , <unk> Park in June 2012 . \n", ' <unk> , Texas . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 8 is located in the International Museum of Art & Science . The specific date placement is unknown , but it was dedicated by <unk> Herrera <unk> , then governor of Veracruz , during his time in office between 2004 – 2010 . \n', ' New York . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 1 was placed next to the main plaza in the grounds of <unk> College in the Bronx , New York . It was installed in 2013 to celebrate the first anniversary of the <unk> Institute of Mexican Studies , housed at the college . The replica was a gift by the government of <unk> state , <unk> <unk> and Mexico Trade ; it was first <unk> in <unk> <unk> Park , outside the United Nations , in 2012 . \n', ' San Francisco , California . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 1 created by <unk> <unk> <unk> was placed in San Francisco City College , Ocean Campus in October 2004 . \n', ' Washington , D.C. A replica of San Lorenzo Head 4 sculpted by <unk> <unk> <unk> was placed near the Constitution Avenue entrance of the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History in October 2001 . \n', ' West Valley City , Utah . A replica of San Lorenzo Head 8 was placed in the Utah Cultural Celebration Center in May 2004 . \n', ' Mexico donated a resin replica of an <unk> colossal head to Belgium ; it is on display in the Musée du <unk> in Brussels . \n', ' In February 2010 , the Mexican <unk> de <unk> <unk> ( <unk> of Foreign Affairs ) announced that the <unk> <unk> de <unk> e Historia would be <unk> a replica <unk> colossal head to Ethiopia , to be placed in Plaza Mexico in <unk> <unk> . \n', '', '', ' = Brad Stevens = \n', '', ' Bradley Kent " Brad " Stevens ( born October 22 , 1976 ) is an American professional basketball head coach for the Boston Celtics of the NBA . He was previously the head coach at Butler University in Indianapolis . A former basketball player , he grew up in <unk> , Indiana , where he starred on the <unk> Community High School basketball team , setting four school records . After high school , he attended <unk> University , where he played basketball and earned a degree in economics . He made the all @-@ conference team multiple times and was a three @-@ time Academic All @-@ America nominee . \n', ' Stevens joined the Butler basketball program as a volunteer prior to the 2000 – 01 season after quitting his job at <unk> Lilly and Company . He was promoted to a full @-@ time assistant coaching position for the 2001 – 02 season . On April 4 , 2007 , he became the head coach after Todd <unk> left to coach the Iowa <unk> . In his first year , Stevens led Butler to 30 wins , becoming the third @-@ youngest head coach in NCAA Division I history to have a 30 @-@ win season . \n', " In 2010 , his third year as head coach , Stevens broke the NCAA record for most wins in a coach 's first three years , exceeding the previous record by eight . In the postseason , Stevens coached Butler to the first Final Four in school history . At 33 years old , Stevens became the second @-@ youngest head coach to make a NCAA National Championship game , losing 61 – 59 to Duke . Shortly after the season ended , he signed a contract extension with Butler through the 2011 – 12 season . With the 2010 – 11 team making the Final Four , Stevens became the youngest coach to go to two Final <unk> . Stevens coached the Bulldogs in their second consecutive national championship game on April 4 , 2011 , where the team lost to the <unk> of the University of Connecticut . \n", " Stevens is known for a calm , focused coaching style . He spends a lot of time <unk> opponents using statistical analysis , adding new <unk> to his team 's play each game . He puts a strong emphasis on defensive and team oriented basketball . Butler 's success against teams with superior athletes has been attributed to Stevens ' coaching style and calm demeanor . Stevens has twice been named the Horizon League Coach of the Year and won <unk> 's Hugh Durham Award mid @-@ season honors in January 2009 . He has also been both a Hugh Durham Award and Jim <unk> Award <unk> all three years of his career . Stevens has been called a coaching <unk> and compared to John Wooden . He is married with two young children . In July 2013 , he signed a six @-@ year , 22 million dollar contract to become the head coach of the Boston Celtics in the NBA . In April 2015 , Stevens led the Celtics to the NBA <unk> as the 7th seed in the Eastern Conference with a 40 – 42 record . \n", '', ' = = Early life = = \n', '', ' Bradley Kent Stevens grew up in <unk> , Indiana , where he developed his love for basketball . Starting at age five , Stevens would watch taped basketball games " before he went to afternoon kindergarten " . His father would often drive him to <unk> , to watch Indiana <unk> games . " It \'s hard not to be [ in love with basketball ] when you \'re a kid growing up in Indiana " , Stevens later said . \n', ' For his eighth birthday , Stevens received a new basketball <unk> . " It ’ s so much fun to dream in your <unk> , " he later remarked . " That ’ s where my friends and I hung out . It was a lot of fun to grow up in that era . " When a friend , Brandon <unk> , had a basketball court installed in his back yard , Stevens " appeared <unk> . " He was so dedicated to the game that he would bring the unprepared ingredients for <unk> cheese sandwiches over to <unk> \'s house , so that he would not waste time waiting for the sandwiches to cook . \n', " <unk> 's court soon became a gathering place , where <unk> kids and kids from the surrounding areas would hold <unk> games . These games helped develop Stevens ' competitive streak . Besides playing basketball , the young Stevens also enjoyed solving puzzles , a skill he later applied to <unk> opposing teams to find their weaknesses . \n", ' Stevens attended <unk> Community High School , where he became a star basketball player . He wore No. 31 in high school in honor of Indiana <unk> guard <unk> Miller . During his freshman year , he would get up early to practice shooting at a local gym before school . The hard work paid off as Stevens made the varsity team that same year . By the time his high school career was complete , Stevens had set school records for career scoring , assists , steals , and three @-@ point field goals . As of 2010 , he still holds the records for points ( <unk> ) , assists ( <unk> ) , and steals ( 156 ) , as well as the single @-@ season points record ( <unk> in 1995 ) . Stevens was named to the all @-@ conference team three times . In 1995 , he was named the <unk> MVP and was the leading scorer in state <unk> play ( 32 @.@ 3 ppg ) . \n', ' Stevens made the academic all @-@ state first team and received the <unk> A Gold Medal Award all four years . He was a member of the National Honor Society , graduating seventh in his class of 165 . He earned three letters in basketball , three in track , and one in baseball during his days at <unk> . During summers , he traveled the country playing <unk> basketball . \n', ' Although Stevens had a strong passion for the game , he realized that his basketball skills were modest and not likely to get him very far . As such , he chose to attend <unk> oriented <unk> University for college . During his stay , he played in all 101 <unk> games , earning four varsity letters . He earned multiple all @-@ conference and academic all @-@ conference awards , and was a three @-@ time Academic All @-@ America nominee . He was a team captain his senior year , and averaged more than 8 points per game three of his four years . His career highs were 24 points and 8 rebounds in a game . After his senior year , Stevens received the Coaches ’ Award . Coach Bill <unk> later described Stevens as " one of the most <unk> , team @-@ oriented person [ sic ] I \'ve ever been around . " \n', " While at <unk> , Stevens was a member of the Management <unk> Honors Program and the <unk> Community Services ’ Sports Night executive board . He was also a brother of the Alpha <unk> <unk> <unk> . During summer vacations , Stevens spent time teaching at Butler basketball camps . He was named to the Dean 's list and graduated in 1999 with a degree in economics . \n", '', ' = = College career = = \n', '', ' In the summer of 2000 , Stevens was offered the opportunity to volunteer in the Butler basketball office . He ran the idea of quitting his job at <unk> Lilly by then @-@ longtime girlfriend Tracy <unk> . She thought about it for two hours before telling him to go for it . " Now , it looks like a great idea , " Stevens later remarked . " At the time , I thought it was something I really wanted to try . " Tracy went back to school to get a law degree that could support the couple if things did not work out for Brad . " We were 23 and realized this was our chance , " Tracy later said . " Five years down the road , we were probably not going to be in a position to do that . The more success you had at Lilly , the harder it would be to leave . " \n', ' Stevens planned to live in a friend \'s basement and took a job at <unk> ’ s to pay the bills . Before he started training at <unk> \'s , he was offered a low @-@ paying administrative position as coordinator of basketball operations under then @-@ coach <unk> <unk> . The position had opened up when assistant coach Jamal <unk> resigned after being arrested on <unk> and drug charges , of which he was later acquitted . Years later , <unk> recalled , " [ Stevens ] was just a hungry young kid that was desperate to get into coaching . He had a great passion and was willing to take a risk to get into the coaching profession . " \n', " After <unk> left the school following the 2000 – 01 season , new head coach Todd <unk> promoted Stevens to a full @-@ time assistant coach . Under <unk> , Stevens was active in every aspect of the game : skills instruction , game preparation , in @-@ game coaching , and recruiting . Butler was 131 – 61 during Stevens ' time as an assistant coach . \n", '', ' = = = Named head coach = = = \n', '', ' On April 2 , 2007 , <unk> resigned in order to take the head @-@ coaching position at the University of Iowa . The Butler players had a meeting with athletic director Barry <unk> , urging him to promote from within . <unk> , having spent the entire season observing the assistant coaches \' interaction with the team , agreed . The day after <unk> resigned Stevens and Butler \'s two other assistant coaches interviewed for the job . Within 24 hours of the interviews Stevens was named Butler \'s new head coach . According to <unk> , Stevens had something older , outside candidates could never match : six years of experience learning the Butler system , dubbed " The Butler Way " by <unk> . " Age wasn \'t a factor because I \'d seen his ability shine through during the course of the season , " <unk> said . \n', '', ' = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = \n', '', ' At the start of the 2007 – 08 season , Stevens was the second youngest coach in Division I basketball . He got off to a fast start , winning his first eight games before falling to Wright State 43 – 42 . <unk> coach Bob Knight , whose Texas Tech team was an early victim , said " I wish we played as smart as they do . " Virginia Tech coach Seth Greenberg added " they \'ve got <unk> about them and they expect to win . " \n', ' Midway through Stevens \' first season , with the Bulldogs at 12 – 1 , The New York Times wrote " so far , Stevens has made the transition [ to head coach ] look easy . " The Times went on to state that Stevens had the calm and <unk> of a <unk> veteran . " You ’ ve got a lot of people always looking for the next step . And that ’ s not what I was doing . I was just trying to figure out a way to win the next game and think like a head coach . " Stevens said . \n', " Butler ended the regular season with a 27 – 3 record , taking first place in the Horizon League with a 16 – 2 in conference mark . The team beat Illinois @-@ Chicago 66 – 50 and Cleveland State 70 – 55 to claim the league 's tournament title and an automatic bid to the 2008 NCAA tournament . Butler was awarded the seven seed in the East Regional . They beat tenth @-@ <unk> South Alabama 81 – 61 in the first round , before falling to second @-@ <unk> Tennessee 76 – 71 in overtime . \n", " Stevens ended up with a school and Horizon league record 30 wins , beating several big name schools – Michigan , Texas Tech , Florida State , Ohio State – along the way . In so doing , he became the third @-@ youngest head coach in NCAA Division I history to lead a team to 30 wins in a season , and became the fourth @-@ <unk> first @-@ year coach . Butler was nationally ranked for a school and league record 19 consecutive weeks . Butler 's 30 – 4 record was the best among teams that did not reach the Final Four . Stevens was a <unk> for the Hugh Durham Award , losing to <unk> Davis of Drake , and a <unk> for the Jim <unk> National Coach of the Year Award , losing to Bo Ryan . \n", ' At the conclusion of the season , Butler signed Stevens to a seven @-@ year contract . " We are extremely excited to reach this long @-@ term agreement to have Brad continue to lead our program , " <unk> remarked . \n', '', ' = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = \n', '', ' Butler lost four starters after the 2007 – 08 season , and was picked to finish fifth in the Horizon league during the 2008 – 09 season . The team got off to a 12 – 1 start that won Stevens the Hugh Durham mid @-@ season coaching award . On February 5 , Stevens notched his 50th win as Butler beat Detroit 66 – 61 . In so doing , Stevens became the sixth head coach in NCAA history to reach 50 wins in 56 games or fewer . Butler finished first in the Horizon League with a 15 – 3 in conference record , <unk> preseason expectations . Butler lost the Horizon League tournament final 57 – 54 to Cleveland State , but made the NCAA tournament as an at @-@ large selection . The team received the nine seed in the South Regional , and lost to eighth @-@ <unk> Louisiana State in the first round by a score of 75 – 71 to finish the year at 26 – 6 overall . \n', " Stevens ' 56 – 10 two @-@ year record places him second only to Bill <unk> ( 58 ) in total wins during one 's first two years as head coach . Stevens was a <unk> for both the Hugh Durham and Jim <unk> Awards for the second straight year and was named the Horizon League Coach of the Year . He was also named as a <unk> for the Henry <unk> Coach of the Year Award . Stevens was given a one @-@ year contract extension at the conclusion of the season . \n", '', ' = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = \n', '', ' <unk> in large part by Gordon <unk> \'s and <unk> Mack \'s roles in leading Team USA to the gold medal in the FIBA Under @-@ 19 World Championship during the off @-@ season , Butler began the season ranked 10th in the Coaches \' Poll and 11th in the AP Poll . A few commentators picked the Bulldogs as a possible " <unk> team " to make the Final Four . Stevens was not so sure , privately telling his father , " We have a really good team , and I ’ m not sure how far we can go this year , but next year , we ought to go really far . " \n', " Butler got off to a mediocre start , losing twice in the 76 Classic 82 – 73 to 22nd @-@ ranked Minnesota and to 19th @-@ ranked Clemson 70 – 69 . After the tournament Butler 's record stood at 4 – 2 and the team dropped to # 23 in the AP Poll and # 20 in the Coaches ' Poll . Butler won its next two games before falling to 13th @-@ ranked Georgetown 72 – 65 in the Jimmy V Classic . The team won its next two games beating # 15 Ohio State 74 – 66 and edging out former conference rival Xavier 69 – 68 , both at home . After losing 67 – 57 at <unk> three days later , Butler stood at 9 – 4 and fell out of the AP rankings . However , the team remained in the Coaches Poll at # 23 . \n", ' Stevens rallied the team , and they proceeded to win 16 straight games before facing <unk> in a <unk> game . Butler beat <unk> 70 – 53 and Stevens tied the NCAA record for most wins ( 81 ) by a head coach in his first three seasons set by Mark Few of <unk> in 2002 and tied by Mark Fox of Nevada in 2007 . \n', " On February 26 , 2010 , Butler traveled to <unk> for their regular season finale . Leading scorer Gordon <unk> was sidelined with lower back pain , but the team still won 74 – 69 . In so doing , Stevens broke the coaching record he had tied the prior week and Butler completed an 18 – 0 undefeated conference schedule . It was Butler 's first undefeated conference record since joining the Horizon League , and first since Joe <unk> led the 1978 team to a 6 – 0 record in the now defunct Indiana Collegiate Conference . Stevens earned his third straight regular @-@ season conference championship . \n", " In the Horizon league tournament , Stevens ' Bulldogs used their home @-@ court advantage to beat Milwaukee 68 – 59 in the semi @-@ finals and to beat Wright State 70 – 45 in the finals . The win earned the team an automatic bid into the 2010 NCAA tournament , and completed a 20 – 0 run through league play . Stevens became the first coach to lead a Horizon League team to both an undefeated regular season and conference tournament since the league was formed in 1979 . Stevens was also the only coach in Division I to lead his team to an undefeated conference schedule during the 2009 – 10 season . \n", '', ' = = = = NCAA tournament = = = = \n', '', " For their season , the Bulldogs were ranked 8th in the final pre @-@ NCAA tournament Coaches ' Poll and 11th in the corresponding AP Poll . On Selection Sunday , the Bulldogs were <unk> fifth in the West regional of the NCAA tournament and given a first @-@ round match up with twelfth <unk> <unk> on March 18 . \n", ' Many basketball commentators picked <unk> to pull the upset , and at halftime it looked like they might be right , as <unk> led 33 – 27 . Stevens made a number of halftime adjustments , and the Bulldogs came out firing on all cylinders in the second half . The team dominated the second half and won the game 77 – 59 . Butler next faced off with thirteenth <unk> Murray State . The game was close throughout , but Butler emerged victorious 54 – 52 when <unk> <unk> a Murray State pass into the back court with less than five seconds on the clock . The win gave Stevens the first Sweet Sixteen appearance of his career . \n', ' On March 25 , 2010 , Butler faced top @-@ <unk> Syracuse . The Bulldogs got off to a good start , jumping out to a 12 – 1 lead and a 35 – 25 halftime advantage . Syracuse rallied in the second half , taking its first lead of the game , 40 – 39 , off a Wes Johnson three @-@ pointer . Stevens called timeout and Butler regained the lead on its next possession , stopping the run . At the 5 : 32 mark , Syracuse got a rare fast break opportunity that ended with a dunk and 54 – 50 lead . Stevens again called time out and re @-@ focused the team . Butler responded by holding Syracuse scoreless for the next 5 minutes , taking a 60 – 54 lead with 0 : 59 to go . Butler held on to win 63 – 59 , advancing to the <unk> Eight for the first time in school history . \n', ' Two days later , Stevens \' Bulldogs met second @-@ <unk> Kansas State in the regional finals . Perhaps feeling the effects of their double overtime 101 – 96 win two days prior , Kansas State got off to a slow start , scoring just 20 points in the first half to trail 27 – 20 . Butler kept the lead in the upper single digits for most of the second half , before Kansas State went on a 13 – 2 run and took a 52 – 51 lead . Stevens immediately called time out and re @-@ focused the team . " Play your game . Just play your game , " he told them . On the ensuing possession , Butler regained the lead for good . They <unk> Kansas State 12 – 4 the rest of the way and won the game 63 – 56 . In the post game celebration , Stevens and walk @-@ on forward Emerson <unk> connected on a flying back @-@ bump that became one of the iconic images of the tournament . \n', ' The win earned the Bulldogs a trip back to Indianapolis for the first Final Four appearance in school and Horizon League history . The win made Stevens , at age 33 , the youngest coach to lead a team to the Final Four since Bob Knight made his first Final Four appearance at age 32 in 1973 . Butler became the smallest school ( enrollment 4 @,@ 200 ) to make the Final Four since <unk> began in 1979 . \n', '', ' = = = = = Final Four = = = = = \n', '', ' On April 3 , Brad Stevens and the Butler Bulldogs faced off with Michigan State in the national semi @-@ finals . Michigan State took an early 14 – 7 lead , and Matt Howard got in early foul trouble , sitting most the first half . Stevens kept the team focused with a " next man up " attitude and the game was tied at 28 at halftime . The second half was dominated by tight defense for both sides . With 2 : 45 to go in the game , the score was 47 – 44 Butler . Michigan State called a time out to set up a play . Stevens correctly anticipated the play call and had Ronald <unk> , the team \'s best defender , switch onto <unk> <unk> off a screen . <unk> stole the ball and Shawn <unk> got fouled on the resulting run out , hitting 1 of 2 . <unk> 50 – 49 with under 30 seconds remaining , Michigan State came up empty and was forced to foul . <unk> hit both foul shots , giving Butler a 52 – 49 lead . After a Michigan State time out , Stevens had his team foul <unk> with 2 seconds remaining to prevent a potentially game tying 3 @-@ pointer . After making the first , <unk> intentionally missed the second free throw . <unk> came down with the rebound to seal the victory . Butler became the first team since the shot clock was adopted for the 1985 – 86 season to hold five straight tournament opponents under 60 points . \n', ' On April 5 , 2010 , Butler and Duke faced off in what The New York Times called " the most eagerly awaited championship game in years " . Late in the first half , Duke went on an 8 – 0 run to take a 26 – 20 lead . Stevens called a timeout . With starters Matt Howard and Ronald <unk> on the bench in foul trouble , Stevens was forced to call on backup center Avery <unk> who came up big for Butler . <unk> scored 10 first half points , tying his season high . At half time , Duke \'s lead stood at 33 – 32 . \n', ' The second half was played very closely , with neither team taking a substantial lead . With 3 : 16 to play , Duke took a 60 – 55 lead on two made free throws by Nolan Smith . Butler cut the lead to one point in the final minute and , after a missed Kyle <unk> jump shot with 36 seconds remaining , got a chance to retake the lead . Butler was unable to initiate their offense and Stevens called a timeout to set up a play . A failed <unk> attempt and a timeout later , <unk> missed a baseline fade @-@ away <unk> and Brian <unk> came down with the rebound for Duke . He was quickly fouled with less than 4 seconds remaining . <unk> narrowly missed a <unk> half @-@ court shot court as time expired , making the final margin 61 – 59 . \n', " The loss snapped Butler 's 25 @-@ game winning streak , the longest in school history . Butler became the smallest school to play for a National Championship since Jacksonville in 1970 . Stevens became the second @-@ youngest head coach to coach in the NCAA National Championship Game , behind Branch <unk> who led the Indiana <unk> to the 1940 National Championship at age 31 . Stevens was named as both a Hugh Durham and Jim <unk> Award <unk> for the third consecutive year , losing to Mike Young and Jamie Dixon respectively . He was also a <unk> for the <unk> Prosser Man of the Year Award , which was won by Bob <unk> . \n", " Butler finished the year ranked # 2 in the Coaches ' Poll , the highest ranking in school history . The school was ranked for 19 consecutive weeks , tying the school record . \n", '', ' = = = 2010 off @-@ season = = = \n', '', ' After the end of the 2009 – 10 season , Brad Stevens and Butler continued to attract considerable attention . President Barack Obama personally called Stevens to <unk> him on Butler \'s season . David Letterman had Stevens on his show for a guest appearance . Butler admissions inquiries shot up 67 % . Stevens received fan letters from around the world , and his phone rang off the hook . He was invited to throw the ceremonial first pitch before the Chicago Cubs vs. Florida Marlins game in Chicago on May 10 . " It \'s all been very surreal , " Stevens said . " If you are the runner @-@ up , you don \'t expect to talk to the president . " " It \'s been a little overwhelming , because I \'m a pretty simple guy , " he added . \n', ' The 2009 – 10 season also helped increase Butler \'s recruiting profile . Asked if the increased fame would change things , Stevens said it better not <unk> him or the university . " I look at this new challenge of not changing and sticking to your core values and making sure you remain humble as a great coaching opportunity . " \n', '', ' = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = \n', '', ' Rankings by ESPN \'s Andy Katz and Fox Sports \' Jeff Goodman released shortly after the 2010 Championship game both had Butler third for the 2010 – 2011 season . Duke coach Mike <unk> agreed , saying Butler would be " right up there , No. 1 or No. 2 ... They \'ll be a favorite next year . " However , <unk> chose to leave early for the NBA Draft and Butler went through a rough patch early in the season , at one point losing three straight games and having a 6 – 5 conference record . <unk> by the emergence of Andrew Smith at center and Matt Howard \'s success as a perimeter forward , Butler ended up winning a share of the conference title at 13 – 5 . The Bulldogs then won the Horizon League Tournament to secure an automatic NCAA tournament bid , and received an 8 seed . \n', ' <unk> by many to lose a first @-@ round match @-@ up against Old Dominion , Butler advanced on a last @-@ second tip @-@ in by Howard . Howard was also clutch in their next game , hitting a free throw with a less than one second remaining to beat Pitt in a dramatic finish . <unk> Mack scored 30 points in the win . Butler won their next game when they defeated Wisconsin . On March 26 , 2011 , the Bulldogs beat Florida 74 – 71 in overtime to earn back @-@ to @-@ back trips to the Final Four . On April 2 , Butler beat fellow Cinderella team <unk> 70 – 62 to make it to a second consecutive national championship game . For the second consecutive year , the Bulldogs fell in the national championship game , this time to Connecticut . \n', '', ' = = = Coaching future = = = \n', '', " On April 8 , 2010 , Stevens signed a long @-@ term deal with Butler , extending his contract through the <unk> – 22 season . Financial terms of the contract were not disclosed ; however , Butler president Bobby <unk> had publicly stated that the university could afford to increase Stevens ' base salary to approximately US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a few days prior . Stevens had previously made US $ 395 @,@ 000 plus benefits in base salary , a relatively low figure for a successful Division I head basketball coach . His total compensation for 2009 – 10 was estimated at US $ 750 @,@ 000 . Stevens had received a raise after each of his three seasons at Butler and his contract contains a buyout clause estimated in the high six or low seven figures . \n", ' By re @-@ signing with Butler , Stevens temporarily ended speculation that he would leave the university for a higher paying job . Oregon , Clemson , and Wake Forest were all said to be interested in offering Stevens multi @-@ million dollar contracts to leave Butler . " First and foremost , I ’ m loyal to Butler , " Stevens said . When asked if he would ever leave Butler , Stevens replied " I guess if they kicked me out . " \n', ' After the 2011 – 12 season , Stevens was pursued vigorously by Illinois to fill their coaching vacancy before he declined their offer . \n', ' In March 2013 , UCLA reportedly offered Stevens between $ 2 @.@ 5 and $ 3 million a year to leave Butler . <unk> circulated that Stevens was in contract negotiations with UCLA , but ultimately the rumors proved false and Stevens stayed at Butler . Commenting on the situation , a source close to Stevens said " Brad doesn \'t understand why people would assume he \'s leaving . " A few days later , Stevens reiterated that he was very happy at Butler and had no intentions to leave as long as he had the support of the university to continue running the program the " right way " . \n', '', ' = = NBA = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Boston Celtics = = = \n', '', " On July 3 , 2013 , Stevens was signed as the head coach by the Boston Celtics . Reports state that his new contract is a six @-@ year , $ 22 million deal . In April 2015 , Stevens led the Celtics to the NBA <unk> as the 7th seed in the Eastern Conference with a 40 – 42 record . On April 21 , 2015 , it was announced that Stevens finished fourth in voting for the NBA 's Coach of the Year Award . On March 1 , 2016 , Stevens was named the Eastern Conference Coach of the Month for games played during February . In April 2016 , Brad Stevens led the Celtics to their second consecutive playoff appearance under his tenure as the 5th seed in the 2016 NBA <unk> finishing the season with a 48 – 34 record . On June 1 , 2016 , Stevens received a contract extension . \n", '', ' = = Coaching style = = \n', '', ' According to Stevens , in one of his first games as head coach , he was nervous and " felt like our team played on edge " because of it . He decided that a team \'s play will reflect the mood of its coach ; a calm coach means a team that will remain poised in difficult game situations , while a nervous coach means a team that plays on edge . " I don ’ t want to lose a game because of my approach , " he told himself . Accordingly , he developed a strategy of always remaining calm and focused during games . He rarely raises his voice or gets emotional , instead quietly observing on the <unk> with folded arms . He does not get upset about bad calls by <unk> or player mistakes , preferring to focus on " the next play " rather than what just happened . Butler player Willie <unk> explained Butler \'s 2010 Final Four run by saying , " When those big runs [ by Syracuse and Kansas State ] came , Coach called a timeout and said a few calm words . Then he said he believes in us , he loves us and we \'re going to win the game . " On the rare occasion Stevens feels the need to correct a player , he does it with " positive reinforcement , just at a little louder <unk> " , according to former assistant coach Matthew Graves . Above all , Stevens wants his players to be confident , not living in fear of being <unk> for making a bad play . \n', ' <unk> , Stevens is always calm , but internally he is far from it . " I \'m not as calm as everybody thinks , " Stevens says . His wife Tracy adds , " He ’ s calm and collected , but he ’ s fiercely competitive . He ’ s always thinking about how he can beat you . " Former player Joel <unk> says " Everyone sees Brad as a level @-@ headed , calm and cool coach , but he ’ s about as competitive of a guy as I know . We would get into it constantly , whether playing two @-@ on @-@ two or arguing about players ’ having better college careers . " \n', ' Stevens spends a lot of time preparing for each game , and always tries to add a few new <unk> specific to that game \'s opponent . Sports Illustrated calls Stevens an expert " on breaking down tape and looking at statistical trends to find opponents \' weaknesses . " Former player Ronald <unk> agrees : " We know everything we need to about our opponents , all their tendencies are broken down " ahead of time . \n', ' Stevens is a proponent of using statistical analysis to enhance his coaching decisions , spending almost as much time looking at statistics as watching game film . " I think it \'s a unique way of looking at the game that may be able to help best communicate to your players " , he explains . For example , when Butler was <unk> in late 2010 , Stevens challenged his team : " this [ 46 % defensive field goal percentage ] is where we are . This isn \'t acceptable to get to where we want to go . But what does that really mean ? It \'s not just get better <unk> , it is , if we give up 3 less <unk> a game , then we will be at 40 percent field goal percentage defense which will be top 20 in the country " . The team got the message , improved throughout the season , and ultimately went on a March run fueled by defense . In 2012 , Stevens became the first college coach to hire someone solely for statistical research when he added Drew Cannon to the staff . If he had the resources , Stevens says he would hire a team of <unk> to analyze the teams play . \n', ' Stevens \' teams are built around solid basketball <unk> and good team work , rather than individual basketball skill . His teams are known for their defense , forcing opponents into <unk> mistakes . The secret to basketball – and life – is " just to do the job to the best of your ability and don \'t worry about anything else , " Stevens says . " <unk> the next game . <unk> the next possession . That \'s our focus . It \'s boring . It \'s also the way championships are won " , he says . In short , Stevens is a strong believer in " The Butler Way " – doing all the little things that transform a group of good basketball players into a great basketball team . " I tell the players \' the Butler Way \' isn \'t easy to define , " Stevens says , " but you can see it on the floor when we share the basketball , play with great energy and defend . " \n', ' Stevens prefers to recruit strong team players instead of going after " top recruits . " " The guys we [ have ] recruited , most of them weren \'t very highly ranked , " Stevens says . " They had very good high school careers or careers at other places ( transfers ) , but for one reason or the other they weren \'t seen as great players . But they all had <unk> . " Stevens puts a strong emphasis on education and has said he would only recruit a " one and done " player if he was committed to getting his degree while playing professionally . \n', ' Stevens has often been referred to as a coaching <unk> , but is not interested in self @-@ promotion . He instead prefers to <unk> the praise he receives to the players , athletic department , and his <unk> . He has not been known to posture for more money , or to leak his name for open coaching positions . He has been described as humble , modest , and not " about the money " . \n', ' The New York Times , USA Today , ESPN , and other commentators have attributed Butler \'s success against teams with superior athletes to Stevens \' coaching style . The Times remarks , " the Bulldogs are very well prepared for their opponents , and they do not <unk> easily " , and says that the resulting confidence has led to the team \'s success . " He coaches to his personality and to his strengths , " <unk> says . " <unk> , he has great <unk> and communication ability with his team . " Yahoo ! Sports compared Stevens to legendary coach John Wooden writing " Brad Stevens is winning at Butler the Wooden way – calm and composed on the <unk> . " Wooden agreed , saying , " I enjoy watching [ Stevens ] and very much enjoy [ Butler \'s ] style of play . " \n', '', ' = = Personal life = = \n', '', ' Brad Stevens is known for his youthful looks , often being described as " baby @-@ faced " . One commentator remarked , " Stevens looks like he checks the mirror every morning to see if it \'s time to start <unk> . " On occasion , he has been mistaken for a player . He is also known for projecting a professional , " corporate " look from the sidelines . Asked what his life would be like if he had never taken up coaching , he replies " If everything else remained the same , I would have been as happy as <unk> ... Friends and family and faith , they \'re going to take the cake over all this stuff . " Stevens met his wife , Tracy ( née <unk> ) , while attending <unk> University . Tracy , who played soccer for <unk> , quickly learned of Brad \'s love for basketball ; on their third date he drove her an hour and a half to attend a high school basketball game . Tracy graduated from Rocky River High School in 1995 , and from <unk> in 1999 . She returned to school in 2000 , driving five hours from Case Western \'s law school to Indianapolis on weekends to see Brad . She finished her final year of law school in Indianapolis , and the couple married in August 2003 . Tracy works as a labor and employment lawyer . Tracy also serves as Brad \'s agent . \n', " Brad and Tracy Stevens are involved with the American Cancer Society 's Coaches <unk> . Cancer . Brad says that the cause really hit home for them after Tracy 's mother died of the disease in June 2004 . The day before Butler 's 2010 Final Four appearance , they hosted a fundraiser for the organization . Brad Stevens has also volunteered his time to the <unk> Foundation for Kids , a charity <unk> <unk> children run by former Butler player Avery <unk> . Stevens remains in close touch with the Butler basketball family ; he notably took a one @-@ game leave from the Celtics in January 2016 to visit with Andrew Smith , a player on both of Butler 's Final Four teams who was dying of cancer ; Smith died less than a week later . At the request of Andrew 's widow , Sam , Brad delivered the <unk> at the memorial service on January 17 , 2016 . \n", " Stevens ' father , Mark , is an <unk> surgeon in Indianapolis and former Indiana <unk> football player . His mother , Jan , is a university professor . She has previously taught at Butler . \n", '', ' = = Head coaching record = = \n', '', '', ' = = = College = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = NBA = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Awards and nominations = = = \n', '', ' Henry <unk> Coach of the Year Award <unk> ( 2009 ) \n', ' Horizon League Coach of the Year ( 2009 , 2010 ) \n', ' Hugh Durham Award for Mid @-@ major Coach of the Year <unk> ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) \n', ' Hugh Durham Award Mid @-@ season honors ( 2009 ) \n', ' Jim <unk> National Coach of the Year Award <unk> ( 2008 , 2009 , 2010 ) \n', ' <unk> Prosser Man of the Year Award <unk> ( 2010 ) \n', '', '', ' = <unk> ( crater ) = \n', '', " <unk> is an impact crater that lies at the south pole of the Moon . The peaks along the crater 's rim are exposed to almost continual sunlight , while the interior is <unk> in shadow ( a <unk> of eternal darkness ) . The low @-@ temperature interior of this crater functions as a cold trap that may capture and freeze <unk> shed during comet impacts on the Moon . Measurements by the <unk> <unk> spacecraft showed higher than normal amounts of hydrogen within the crater , which may indicate the presence of water ice . The crater is named after Antarctic explorer Ernest <unk> . \n", '', ' = = Description = = \n', '', ' The rotational axis of the Moon lies within <unk> , only a few kilometers from its center . The crater is 21 km in diameter and 4 @.@ 2 km deep . From the Earth , it is viewed edge @-@ on in a region of rough , <unk> terrain . It is located within the South Pole @-@ <unk> basin on a <unk> . The rim is slightly raised about the surrounding surface and it has an outer rampart that has been only lightly impacted . No significant craters intersect the rim , and it is sloped about 1 @.@ 5 ° toward the direction 50 – 90 ° from the Earth . The age of the crater is about 3 @.@ 6 billion years and it has been in the proximity of the south lunar pole for at least the last two billion years . \n', ' Because the orbit of the Moon is <unk> only 5 ° from the ecliptic , the interior of this crater lies in perpetual darkness . Estimates of the area in permanent shadow were obtained from Earth @-@ based radar studies . <unk> along the rim of the crater are almost continually illuminated by sunlight , spending about 80 – 90 % of each lunar orbit exposed to the Sun . <unk> illuminated mountains have been termed peaks of eternal light and have been predicted to exist since the 1900s . \n', ' The shadowed portion of the crater was <unk> with the <unk> Camera of the Japanese <unk> spacecraft using the illumination of sunlight reflected off the rim . The interior of the crater consists of a symmetrical 30 ° slope that leads down to a 6 @.@ 6 km diameter floor . The handful of craters along the interior span no more than a few hundred meters . The bottom is covered by an uneven mound @-@ like feature that is 300 to 400 m thick . The central peak is about 200 m in height . \n', ' The continuous shadows in the south polar craters cause the floors of these formations to maintain a temperature that never exceeds about 100 K. For <unk> , the average temperature was determined to be about 90 K , reaching 88 K at the crater floor . Under these conditions , the estimated rate of loss from any ice in the interior would be 10 − 26 to 10 − 27 m / s . Any water vapor that arrives here following a <unk> impact on the Moon would lie permanently frozen on or below the surface . However , the surface albedo of the crater floor matches the lunar far @-@ side , suggesting that there is no exposed surface ice . \n', ' This crater was named after Ernest Henry <unk> , an Anglo @-@ Irish explorer of Antarctica from 1901 until his death in 1922 . The name was officially adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1994 . Nearby craters of note include Shoemaker , <unk> , de <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . <unk> farther away , on the eastern hemisphere of the lunar near side , are the larger craters <unk> and Scott , named after two other early explorers of the Antarctic continent . \n', '', ' = = Exploration = = \n', '', ' From the perspective of the Earth , this crater lies along the southern limb of the Moon , making observation difficult . Detailed mapping of the polar regions and <unk> of the Moon did not occur until the advent of orbiting spacecraft . <unk> lies entirely within the rim of the immense South Pole @-@ <unk> basin , which is one of the largest known impact formations in the Solar System . This basin is over 12 kilometers deep , and an exploration of its properties could provide useful information about the lunar interior . \n', ' A neutron <unk> on board the <unk> <unk> spacecraft detected enhanced concentrations of hydrogen close to the northern and southern lunar poles , including the crater <unk> . At the end of this mission in July 1999 , the spacecraft was crashed into the nearby crater Shoemaker in the hope of detecting from Earth @-@ based telescopes an impact @-@ generated plume containing water vapor . The impact event did not produce any detectable water vapor , and this may be an indication that the hydrogen is not in the form of hydrated minerals , or that the impact site did not contain any ice . Alternatively , it is possible that the crash did not excavate deeply enough into the <unk> to liberate significant quantities of water vapor . \n', ' From Earth @-@ based radar and spacecraft images of the crater edge , <unk> appears to be relatively intact ; much like a young crater that has not been significantly eroded from subsequent impacts . This may mean that the inner sides are relatively steep , which may make traversing the sides relatively difficult for a robotic vehicle . In addition , it is possible that the interior floor might not have collected a significant quantity of <unk> since its formation . However other craters in the vicinity are considerably older , and may contain significant deposits of hydrogen , possibly in the form of water ice . ( See Shoemaker ( lunar crater ) , for example . ) \n', ' Radar studies preceding and following the <unk> <unk> mission demonstrate that the inner walls of <unk> are similar in reflective characteristics to those of some <unk> craters . In particular , the surroundings appear to contain a significant number of blocks in its <unk> blanket , suggesting that its radar properties are a result of surface <unk> , and not ice deposits , as was previously suggested from a radar experiment involving the <unk> mission . This interpretation , however , is not universally agreed upon within the scientific community . Radar images of the crater at a wavelength of 13 cm show no evidence for water ice deposits . \n', ' Optical imaging inside the crater was done for the first time by the Japanese lunar <unk> spacecraft <unk> in 2007 . It did not have any evidence of significant amount of water ice , down to the image resolution of 10 m per pixel . \n', ' On November 15 , 2008 , a 34 @-@ kg probe made a hard landing near the crater . The moon impact probe ( <unk> ) was launched from the Indian <unk> @-@ I spacecraft and reached the surface 25 minutes later . The probe carried a radar <unk> , video imaging system , and a mass <unk> , which will be used to search for water . \n', '', ' = = Potential uses = = \n', '', " Some sites along <unk> 's rim receive almost constant illumination . At these <unk> sunlight is almost always available for conversion into electricity using solar panels , potentially making them good locations for future Moon landings . The temperature at this site is also more favorable than at more equatorial latitudes as it does not experience the daily temperature extremes of 100 ° C when the Sun is overhead , to as low as − 150 ° C during the lunar night . \n", ' While scientific experiments performed by <unk> and <unk> <unk> could indicate the presence of water in the polar craters , the current evidence is far from definitive . There are doubts among scientists as to whether or not the hydrogen is in the form of ice , as well as to the concentration of this " ore " with depth below the surface . Resolution of this issue will require future missions to the Moon . The presence of water suggests that the crater floor could potentially be " mined " for deposits of hydrogen in water form , a commodity that is expensive to deliver directly from the Earth . \n', ' This crater has also been proposed as a future site for a large infrared telescope . The low temperature of the crater floor makes it ideal for infrared observations , and solar cells placed along the rim could provide near @-@ continuous power to the observatory . About 120 kilometers from the crater lies the 5 @-@ km tall <unk> Mountain , a peak that is <unk> visible from the Earth , and which could serve as a radio relay station when suitably equipped . \n', ' NASA has named the rim of <unk> as a potential candidate for its lunar outpost , slated to be up and running by <unk> and continuously staffed by a crew by <unk> . The location would promote self @-@ <unk> for lunar residents , as perpetual sunlight on the south pole would provide energy for solar panels . Furthermore , the shadowed polar regions are believed to contain the frozen water necessary for human consumption and could also be harvested for fuel manufacture . \n', '', '', ' = American Beauty ( 1999 film ) = \n', '', " American Beauty is a 1999 American drama film directed by Sam <unk> and written by Alan Ball . Kevin Spacey stars as Lester <unk> , a 42 @-@ year @-@ old advertising executive who has a <unk> crisis when he becomes infatuated with his <unk> daughter 's best friend , Angela ( Mena <unk> ) . <unk> <unk> co @-@ stars as Lester 's <unk> wife , Carolyn , and <unk> Birch plays their <unk> daughter , Jane . Wes Bentley , Chris Cooper , and Allison <unk> also feature . The film is described by academics as a satire of American middle @-@ class notions of beauty and personal satisfaction ; analysis has focused on the film 's <unk> of romantic , and paternal love , sexuality , beauty , <unk> , self @-@ liberation , and redemption . \n", ' Ball began writing American Beauty as a play in the early 1990s , partly inspired by the media circus around the Amy Fisher trial in 1992 . He <unk> the play after realizing the story would not work on stage . After several years as a television screenwriter , Ball revived the idea in 1997 when attempting to break into the film industry . The modified script had a cynical outlook that was influenced by Ball \'s frustrating <unk> writing for several sitcoms . <unk> Dan <unk> and Bruce Cohen took American Beauty to DreamWorks ; the then @-@ fledgling film studio bought Ball \'s script for $ 250 @,@ 000 , <unk> several other production bodies . DreamWorks financed the $ 15 million production and served as its North American distributor . American Beauty marked acclaimed theater director <unk> \' film debut ; <unk> after his successful productions of the musicals Oliver ! and <unk> , <unk> was , nevertheless , only given the job after 20 others were considered and several " A @-@ list " directors turned down the opportunity . \n', " Spacey was <unk> ' first choice for the role of Lester , though DreamWorks had urged the director to consider better @-@ known actors ; similarly , the studio suggested several actors for the role of Carolyn until <unk> offered the part to <unk> without DreamWorks ' knowledge . Principal photography took place between December 1998 and February 1999 on soundstages at the Warner Bros. <unk> in Burbank , California , and on location in Los Angeles . <unk> ' dominant style was deliberate and composed ; he made extensive use of static shots and slow pans and <unk> to generate tension . <unk> Conrad Hall complemented <unk> ' style with peaceful shot compositions to contrast with the turbulent on @-@ screen events . During editing , <unk> made several changes that gave the film a less cynical tone than the script . \n", " Released in North America on September 17 , 1999 , American Beauty was positively received by critics and audiences ; it was the best @-@ reviewed American film of the year and grossed over $ <unk> million worldwide . Reviewers praised most aspects of the production , with particular emphasis on <unk> , Spacey , and Ball ; criticism focused on the familiarity of the characters and setting . DreamWorks launched a major campaign to increase the film 's chances of Academy Award success ; at the 72nd Academy Awards the following year , the film won Best Picture , Best Director , Best Actor ( for Spacey ) , Best Original Screenplay , and Best <unk> . It was nominated for and won many other awards and honors , mainly for the direction , writing , and acting . \n", '', ' = = Plot = = \n', '', ' Lester <unk> is a middle @-@ aged advertising executive and magazine writer who <unk> his job . He is <unk> married to Carolyn , a neurotic yet fiercely ambitious real estate <unk> ; their <unk> daughter , Jane , <unk> her parents and has low self @-@ esteem . The <unk> \' new neighbors are retired United States Marine Corps Colonel Frank <unk> and his near @-@ <unk> wife , Barbara . Their <unk> son , Ricky , constantly films his surroundings with a <unk> , collecting hundreds of recordings on <unk> in his bedroom . His job as a part @-@ time bar <unk> serves as a front for his secret marijuana dealing . Col. <unk> is a strict disciplinarian who previously sent Ricky to a military school and briefly committed him to a psychiatric hospital . Jim <unk> and Jim Berkley , a gay couple who live nearby , welcome the family to the neighborhood ; the <unk> Col. <unk> angrily asks Ricky " why these faggots have to rub it in your face . " \n', " Lester becomes infatuated with Jane 's vain friend , Angela Hayes , after seeing her perform a half @-@ time dance routine at a high school basketball game . He starts having sexual fantasies about Angela , in which red rose <unk> are a recurring motif . Carolyn begins an affair with her married business rival , <unk> Kane . When Lester 's boss , Brad , tells him that he is to be laid off , Lester instead blackmails him for $ 60 @,@ 000 and <unk> his job . Lester takes a minimum @-@ wage job at a fast @-@ food restaurant , trades in his Toyota <unk> for his dream car , a 1970 Pontiac <unk> , and starts working out after he <unk> Angela tell Jane that she would find him sexually attractive if he got in shape . He begins smoking marijuana supplied by Ricky . The girls ' friendship <unk> after Jane starts a relationship with Ricky . Jane and Ricky bond over what Ricky considers the most beautiful imagery he has filmed : a plastic bag being blown in the wind . \n", " Lester discovers Carolyn 's <unk> , but reacts <unk> . <unk> ends the affair , fearing an expensive divorce . Col. <unk> becomes suspicious of Lester and Ricky 's friendship when he finds his son 's footage of Lester lifting weights while nude , which Ricky captured by chance , leading him to believe that Ricky is gay . After <unk> on Ricky and Lester through Lester 's garage window , the colonel mistakenly concludes the pair is sexually involved . He later confronts and beats Ricky for the supposed affair and accuses him of being gay . Ricky falsely admits the charges and <unk> his father into kicking him out of their home . Meanwhile , Carolyn is sitting in her car in the rain , taking a gun out of the <unk> box while a voice on the radio talks about not being a victim . Ricky goes to Jane 's bedroom , finding her arguing with Angela about Angela 's <unk> with Lester . Ricky convinces Jane to flee with him to New York City and assures Angela that she is ugly , boring , and ordinary . \n", ' Col. <unk> confronts Lester and attempts to kiss him ; Lester <unk> the colonel , who <unk> flees . Carolyn puts the gun in her handbag , shouting , " I refuse to be a victim ! " Lester finds a distraught Angela sitting alone in the dark ; she asks him to tell her she is beautiful . He does , and they kiss . \n', ' Carolyn drives through the rain , rehearsing a confession to Lester . Just as Lester and Angela are about to have sex , she admits that she is a virgin , and Lester changes his mind . He instead comforts her and the pair bond over their shared <unk> . Angela goes to the bathroom and Lester <unk> at a family photograph in his kitchen . An unseen figure raises a gun to the back of his head , a gunshot sounds , and blood <unk> on the wall . Ricky and Jane find Lester \'s body , while Carolyn breaks down crying in the <unk> . A <unk> Col. <unk> returns home , where a gun is shown to be missing from his collection . Lester \'s closing narration describes meaningful experiences during his life ; he says that , despite his death , he is happy because there is " so much beauty " in the world . \n', '', ' = = Themes and analysis = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Multiple interpretations = = = \n', '', ' Scholars and academics have offered many possible readings of American Beauty ; film critics are similarly divided , not so much about the quality of the film , as their interpretations of it . Described by many as about " the meaning of life " or " the hollow existence of the American suburbs " , the film has defied categorization by even the filmmakers . <unk> is <unk> , saying the script seemed to be about something different each time he read it : " a mystery story , a <unk> journey through American <unk> , a series of love stories ; [ ... ] it was about imprisonment , [ ... ] loneliness , [ and ] beauty . It was funny ; it was angry , sad . " The literary critic and author Wayne C. <unk> concludes that the film <unk> any one interpretation : " [ American Beauty ] cannot be adequately summarized as \' here is a satire on what \'s wrong with American life \' ; that plays down the celebration of beauty . It is more tempting to <unk> it as \' a portrait of the beauty underlying American <unk> and <unk> \' , but that plays down the scenes of cruelty and horror , and Ball \'s disgust with our <unk> . It cannot be summarized with either Lester or Ricky \'s philosophical statements about what life is or how one should live . " He argues that the problem of interpreting the film is tied with that of finding its center — a controlling voice who " [ <unk> ] all of the choices " . He contends that in American Beauty \'s case , it is neither <unk> nor Ball . <unk> considers the voice to be Ball \'s , but even while the writer was " strongly influential " on set , he often had to accept deviations from his vision , particularly ones that transformed the cynical tone of his script into something more optimistic . With " <unk> voices <unk> on the original author \'s , " <unk> says , those who interpret American Beauty " have forgotten to probe for the elusive center " . According to <unk> , the film \'s true controller is the creative energy " that hundreds of people put into its production , agreeing and <unk> , inserting and cutting " . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and redemption = = = \n', '', ' <unk> called American Beauty a rite of passage film about imprisonment and escape from imprisonment . The <unk> of Lester \'s existence is established through his gray , <unk> workplace and <unk> clothing . In these scenes , he is often framed as if trapped , " reiterating rituals that hardly please him " . He <unk> in the <unk> of his shower ; the shower stall evokes a jail cell and the shot is the first of many where Lester is confined behind bars or within frames , such as when he is reflected behind columns of numbers on a computer monitor , " confined [ and ] nearly crossed out " . The academic and author <unk> W. <unk> argues that Lester \'s journey is the story \'s center . His sexual <unk> through meeting Angela is the first of several turning points as he begins to " [ throw ] off the responsibilities of the comfortable life he has come to <unk> " . After Lester shares a joint with Ricky , his spirit is released and he begins to rebel against Carolyn . Changed by Ricky \'s " attractive , profound confidence " , Lester is convinced that Angela is <unk> and sees that he must question his " <unk> , <unk> <unk> suburban existence " ; he takes a job at a fast @-@ food outlet , which allows him to <unk> to a point when he could " see his whole life ahead of him " . \n', ' When Lester is caught <unk> by Carolyn , his angry <unk> about their lack of intimacy is the first time he says aloud what he thinks about her . By <unk> the issue and Carolyn \'s " superficial investments in others " , Lester is trying to " regain a voice in a home that [ only respects ] the voices of mother and daughter " . His final turning point comes when Angela and he almost have sex ; after she confesses her <unk> , he no longer thinks of her as a sex object , but as a daughter . He holds her close and " <unk> her up " . <unk> called it " the most satisfying end to [ Lester \'s ] journey there could possibly have been " . With these final scenes , <unk> intended to show Lester at the conclusion of a " mythical quest " . After Lester gets a beer from the <unk> , the camera pushes toward him , then stops facing a <unk> down which he walks " to meet his fate " . Having begun to act his age again , Lester achieves closure . As he <unk> at a family photo , the camera pans slowly from Lester to the kitchen wall , onto which blood <unk> as a gunshot rings out ; the slow pan reflects the peace of Lester \'s death . His body is discovered by Jane and Ricky . <unk> said that Ricky \'s staring into Lester \'s dead eyes is " the culmination of the theme " of the film : that beauty is found where it is least expected . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and beauty = = = \n', '', ' Like other American films of 1999 — such as Fight Club , Bringing Out the Dead , and Magnolia , American Beauty instructs its audience to " [ lead ] more meaningful lives " . The film argues the case against conformity , but does not deny that people need and want it ; even the gay characters just want to fit in . Jim and Jim , the <unk> \' other neighbors , are a satire of " gay <unk> <unk> " , who " [ invest ] in the <unk> <unk> " that the film criticizes in heterosexual couples . The feminist academic and author <unk> R. <unk> argues that American Beauty uses its " art house " <unk> to direct its message of <unk> primarily to the middle classes , and that this approach is a " cliché of <unk> preoccupation ; [ ... ] the underlying premise being that the luxury of finding an individual \' self \' through denial and <unk> is always open to those wealthy enough to choose , and <unk> enough to present themselves <unk> as a rebel . " \n', ' Professor Roy M. <unk> argues that the film \'s thematic center is its direction to the audience to " look closer " . The opening combines an unfamiliar viewpoint of the <unk> \' neighborhood with Lester \'s narrated admission that he will soon die , forcing audiences to consider their own mortality and the beauty around them . It also sets a series of mysteries ; <unk> asks , " from what place exactly , and from what state of being , is he telling this story ? If he \'s already dead , why <unk> with whatever it is he wishes to tell about his last year of being alive ? There is also the question of how Lester has died — or will die . " <unk> believes the preceding scene — Jane \'s discussion with Ricky about the possibility of his killing her father — adds further mystery . Professor Ann C. Hall <unk> ; she says by presenting an early resolution to the mystery , the film allows the audience to put it aside " to view the film and its philosophical issues " . Through this examination of Lester \'s life , <unk> and death , American Beauty <unk> American middle class notions of meaning , beauty and satisfaction . Even Lester \'s transformation only comes about because of the possibility of sex with Angela ; he therefore remains a " willing devotee of the popular media \'s <unk> of <unk> male sexuality as a sensible route to personal <unk> " . Carolyn is similarly driven by conventional views of happiness ; from her belief in " house beautiful " domestic <unk> to her car and <unk> outfit , Carolyn \'s domain is a " <unk> American <unk> vision of <unk> , or Eden " . The <unk> are unaware that they are " <unk> philosophically , and devout consumers <unk> " who expect the " <unk> of American beauty " to give them happiness . <unk> argues that " they are helpless in the face of the <unk> economic and sexual stereotypes [ ... ] that they and their culture have designated for their salvation . " \n', ' The film presents Ricky as its " visionary , [ ... ] spiritual and mystical center " . He sees beauty in the <unk> of everyday life , <unk> as much as he can for fear of missing it . He shows Jane what he considers the most beautiful thing he has filmed : a plastic bag , <unk> in the wind in front of a wall . He says capturing the moment was when he realized that there was " an entire life behind things " ; he feels that " sometimes there \'s so much beauty in the world I feel like I can \'t take it ... and my heart is going to cave in . " <unk> argues that Ricky , in looking past the " cultural <unk> " , has " [ grasped ] the <unk> <unk> of the created world " to see God . As the film progresses , the <unk> move closer to Ricky \'s view of the world . Lester only <unk> personal satisfaction at the film \'s end . On the <unk> of having sex with Angela , he returns to himself after she admits her <unk> . Suddenly confronted with a child , he begins to treat her as a daughter ; in doing so , Lester sees himself , Angela , and his family " for the poor and fragile but <unk> creatures they are " . He looks at a picture of his family in <unk> times , and dies having had an <unk> that <unk> him with " wonder , joy , and soul @-@ shaking gratitude " — he has finally seen the world as it is . \n', ' According to Patti <unk> , colors are used symbolically throughout the film , none more so than red , which is an important thematic signature that drives the story and " [ defines ] Lester \'s arc " . First seen in drab colors that reflect his <unk> , Lester surrounds himself with red as he <unk> his individuality . The American Beauty rose is repeatedly used as symbol ; when Lester <unk> about Angela , she is usually naked and surrounded by rose <unk> . In these scenes , the rose <unk> Lester \'s desire for her . When associated with Carolyn , the rose represents a " façade for suburban success " . Roses are included in almost every shot inside the <unk> \' home , where they signify " a mask covering a bleak , <unk> reality " . Carolyn feels that " as long as there can be <unk> , all is well " . She cuts the <unk> and puts them in <unk> , where they adorn her " <unk> vision of what makes for beauty " and begin to die . The <unk> in the vase in the Angela – Lester seduction scene symbolize Lester \'s previous life and Carolyn ; the camera pushes in as Lester and Angela get closer , finally taking the <unk> — and thus Carolyn — out of the shot . Lester \'s <unk> at the end of the film is expressed by rain and the use of red , building to a crescendo that is a deliberate contrast to the release Lester feels . The constant use of red " <unk> [ the audience ] <unk> " into becoming used to it ; consequently , it leaves the audience unprepared when Lester is shot and his blood <unk> on the wall . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and repression = = = \n', '', ' <unk> argues that American Beauty defines its characters through their sexuality . Lester \'s attempts to relive his youth are a direct result of his lust for Angela , and the state of his relationship with Carolyn is in part shown through their lack of sexual contact . Also sexually frustrated , Carolyn has an affair that takes her from " cold <unk> " to a more <unk> soul who " [ sings ] happily along with " the music in her car . Jane and Angela constantly reference sex , through Angela \'s descriptions of her supposed sexual encounters and the way the girls address each other . Their nude scenes are used to communicate their vulnerability . By the end of the film , Angela \'s hold on Jane has weakened until the only power she has over her friend is Lester \'s attraction to her . Col. <unk> reacts with disgust to meeting Jim and Jim ; he asks , " How come these faggots always have to rub it in your face ? How can they be so <unk> ? " To which Ricky replies , " That \'s the thing , Dad — they don \'t feel like it \'s anything to be <unk> of . " <unk> argues that Col. <unk> \' reaction is not <unk> , but an " <unk> self @-@ <unk> " . \n', ' With other turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ millennium films such as Fight Club , In the Company of Men ( 1997 ) , American <unk> ( 2000 ) , and Boys Don \'t <unk> ( 1999 ) , American Beauty " raises the broader , widely explored issue of <unk> in crisis " . Professor Vincent <unk> charges that in their reinforcement of <unk> " against threats posed by war , by <unk> , and by feminist and <unk> challenges " , these films present a need to " focus on , and even to privilege " aspects of <unk> " deemed \' <unk> \' " . Lester \'s transformation conveys " that he , and not the woman , has borne the brunt of [ lack of being ] " and he will not stand for being <unk> . Lester \'s attempts to " strengthen traditional <unk> " conflict with his responsibilities as a father . Although the film portrays the way Lester returns to that role positively , he does not become " the <unk> figure implicitly celebrated in films like Fight Club " . <unk> concludes that Lester \'s behavior toward Angela is " a <unk> but nearly necessary step toward his becoming a father again " . \n', ' <unk> says the film " explicitly affirms the importance of upholding the prohibition against <unk> " ; a recurring theme of Ball \'s work is his comparison of the <unk> against <unk> and homosexuality . Instead of making an overt distinction , American Beauty looks at how their repression can lead to violence . Col. <unk> is so <unk> of his homosexuality that it drives him to murder Lester . Ball said , " The movie is in part about how homophobia is based in fear and repression and about what [ they ] can do . " The film implies two <unk> <unk> desires : Lester \'s pursuit of Angela is a manifestation of his lust for his own daughter , while Col. <unk> \' repression is exhibited through the almost <unk> discipline with which he controls Ricky . Consequently , Ricky realizes that he can only hurt his father by falsely telling him he is homosexual , while Angela \'s vulnerability and submission to Lester reminds him of his responsibilities and the limits of his fantasy . Col. <unk> represents Ball \'s father , whose <unk> homosexual desires led to his own <unk> . Ball rewrote Col. <unk> to delay revealing him as homosexual , which <unk> reads as a possible " <unk> of Ball \'s own patriarchal @-@ <unk> fantasies " . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and music = = = \n', '', ' American Beauty follows a traditional narrative structure , only <unk> with the displaced opening scene of Jane and Ricky from the middle of the story . Although the plot spans one year , the film is narrated by Lester at the moment of his death . Jacqueline <unk> says that the plot " occupies [ ... ] no time [ or ] all time " , citing Lester \'s claim that life did not flash before his eyes , but that it " stretches on forever like an ocean of time " . <unk> argues that a " rhythm of repetition " forms the core of the film \'s structure . For example , two scenes have the <unk> sitting down to an evening meal , shot from the same angle . Each image is broadly similar , with minor differences in object placement and body language that reflect the changed dynamic brought on by Lester \'s new @-@ found assertiveness . Another example is the pair of scenes in which Jane and Ricky film each other . Ricky films Jane from his bedroom window as she removes her bra , and the image is reversed later for a similarly " <unk> and <unk> " scene in which Jane films Ricky at a vulnerable moment . \n', ' Lester \'s fantasies are emphasized by <unk> and repetitive @-@ motion shots ; <unk> uses double @-@ and @-@ triple <unk> in several sequences , and the score alters to make the audience aware that it is entering a fantasy . One example is the <unk> scene — Lester \'s first encounter with Angela . While the <unk> perform their half @-@ time routine to " On Broadway " , Lester becomes increasingly <unk> on Angela . Time slows to represent his " <unk> hypnosis " and Lester begins to <unk> that Angela \'s performance is for him alone . " On Broadway " — which provides a conventional <unk> to the <unk> action — is replaced by discordant , <unk> music that lacks melody or progression . This <unk> score is important to creating the narrative <unk> in the sequence ; it conveys a moment for Lester that is stretched to an indeterminate length . The effect is one that Stan Link <unk> to " vertical time " , described by the composer and music theorist Jonathan Kramer as music that <unk> " a single present stretched out into an enormous duration , a potentially infinite \' now \' that nonetheless feels like an instant " . The music is used like a visual cue , so that Lester and the score are staring at Angela . The sequence ends with the sudden reintroduction of " On Broadway " and <unk> time . \n', ' According to Drew Miller of <unk> , the soundtrack " [ gives ] unconscious voice " to the characters \' <unk> and <unk> the subtext . The most obvious use of pop music " accompanies and gives context to " Lester \'s attempts to recapture his youth ; reminiscent of how the counterculture of the 1960s <unk> American repression through music and drugs , Lester begins to smoke cannabis and listen to rock music . <unk> \' song choices " progress through the history of American popular music " . Miller argues that although some may be over familiar , there is a <unk> element at work , " making good on [ the film \'s ] encouragement that viewers look closer " . Toward the end of the film , Thomas Newman \'s score features more prominently , creating " a disturbing tempo " that matches the tension of the visuals . The exception is " Don \'t Let It <unk> You Down " , which plays during Angela \'s seduction of Lester . At first appropriate , its tone clashes as the seduction stops . The lyrics , which speak of " castles burning " , can be seen as a metaphor for Lester \'s view of Angela — " the <unk> , fantasy @-@ driven exterior of the \' American Beauty \' " — as it burns away to reveal " the timid , small @-@ <unk> girl who , like his wife , has <unk> developed a false public self " . \n', '', ' = = Production = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Development = = = \n', '', ' In 1997 , Alan Ball resolved to move into the film industry after several frustrating years writing for the television sitcoms Grace Under Fire and <unk> . He joined the United Talent Agency , where his representative , Andrew <unk> , suggested he write a <unk> script to " <unk> [ himself ] to the town as a screenwriter " . Ball pitched three ideas to <unk> : two conventional romantic comedies and American Beauty , which he had originally conceived as a play in the early 1990s . Despite the story \'s lack of an easily <unk> concept , <unk> selected American Beauty because he felt it was the one for which Ball had the most passion . While developing the script , Ball created another television sitcom , Oh , <unk> Up . He channeled his anger and frustration at having to <unk> to network demands on that show — and during his <unk> on Grace Under Fire and <unk> — into writing American Beauty . \n', ' Ball did not expect to sell the script , believing it would act as more of a calling card , but American Beauty drew interest from several production bodies . <unk> passed the script to several producers , including Dan <unk> and Bruce Cohen , who took it to DreamWorks . With the help of executives Glenn <unk> and Bob Cooper , and Steven Spielberg in his capacity as studio partner , Ball was convinced to develop the project at DreamWorks ; he received <unk> from the studio — known at the time for its more conventional fare — that it would not " iron the [ edges ] out " . In an unusual move , DreamWorks decided not to option the script ; instead , in April 1998 , the studio bought it outright for $ 250 @,@ 000 , <unk> Fox <unk> Pictures , October Films , Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , and <unk> Entertainment . DreamWorks planned to make the film for $ 6 – 8 million . \n', ' <unk> and Cohen involved Ball throughout the film \'s development , including casting and director selection . The producers met with about 20 interested directors , several of whom were considered " A @-@ list " at the time . Ball was not keen on the more well @-@ known directors because he believed their involvement would increase the budget and lead DreamWorks to become " nervous about the content " . Nevertheless , the studio offered the film to Mike Nichols and Robert <unk> ; neither accepted . In the same year , <unk> ( then a theater director ) revived the musical <unk> in New York with fellow director Rob Marshall . Beth <unk> of the Creative Artists Agency arranged meetings for <unk> with studio figures in Los Angeles to see if film direction was a possibility . <unk> came across American Beauty in a pile of eight scripts at <unk> \'s house , and knew immediately that it was the one he wanted to make ; early in his career , he had been inspired by how the film Paris , Texas ( 1984 ) presented contemporary America as a mythic landscape and he saw the same theme in American Beauty , as well as parallels with his own childhood . <unk> later met with Spielberg ; impressed by <unk> \' productions of Oliver ! and <unk> , Spielberg encouraged him to consider American Beauty . \n', ' <unk> found that he still had to convince DreamWorks \' production executives to let him direct . He had already discussed the film with <unk> and Cohen , and felt they supported him . Ball was also keen ; having seen <unk> , he was impressed with <unk> \' " keen visual sense " and thought he did not make obvious choices . Ball felt that <unk> liked to look under the story \'s surface , a talent he felt would be a good fit with the themes of American Beauty . <unk> \' background also <unk> him , because of the prominent role the playwright usually has in a theater production . Over two meetings — the first with Cooper , Walter <unk> , and Laurie MacDonald , the second with Cooper alone — <unk> pitched himself to the studio . The studio soon approached <unk> with a deal to direct for the minimum salary allowed under Directors Guild of America rules — $ 150 @,@ 000 . <unk> accepted , and later recalled that after taxes and his agent \'s commission , he only earned $ 38 @,@ 000 . In June 1998 , DreamWorks confirmed that it had contracted <unk> to direct the film . \n', '', ' = = = Writing = = = \n', '', ' Ball was partly inspired by two encounters he had in the early 1990s . In about 1991 – 92 , Ball saw a plastic bag blowing in the wind outside the World Trade Center . He watched the bag for 10 minutes , saying later that it provoked an " unexpected emotional response " . In 1992 , Ball became preoccupied with the media circus around the Amy Fisher trial . <unk> a comic book telling of the scandal , he was struck by how quickly it had become <unk> . He said he " felt like there was a real story underneath [ that was ] more fascinating and way more tragic " than the story presented to the public , and attempted to turn the idea into a play . Ball produced around 40 pages , but stopped when he realized it would work better as a film . He felt that because of the visual themes , and because each character \'s story was .. " intensely personal " , it could not be done on a stage . All the main characters appeared in this version , but Carolyn did not feature strongly ; Jim and Jim instead had much larger roles . \n', ' Ball based Lester \'s story on aspects of his own life . Lester \'s re @-@ examination of his life parallels feelings Ball had in his mid @-@ 30s ; like Lester , Ball put aside his <unk> to work in jobs he hated for people he did not respect . Scenes in Ricky \'s household reflect Ball \'s own childhood experiences . Ball suspected his father was homosexual and used the idea to create Col. <unk> , a man who " gave up his chance to be himself " . Ball said the script \'s mix of comedy and drama was not intentional , but that it came <unk> from his own outlook on life . He said the juxtaposition produced a <unk> contrast , giving each trait more impact than if they appeared alone . \n', ' In the script that was sent to prospective actors and directors , Lester and Angela had sex ; by the time of shooting , Ball had rewritten the scene to the final version . Ball initially rebuffed counsel from others that he change the script , feeling they were being <unk> ; the final <unk> to alter the scene came from DreamWorks \' then @-@ president Walter <unk> . He convinced Ball by indicating that in Greek mythology , the hero " has a moment of <unk> before [ ... ] tragedy occurs " . Ball later said his anger when writing the first draft had blinded him to the idea that Lester needed to refuse sex with Angela to complete his emotional journey — to achieve redemption . <unk> and Cohen asked Ball not to alter the scene right away , as they felt it would be inappropriate to make changes to the script before a director had been hired . Early drafts also included a flashback to Col. <unk> \' service in the Marines , a sequence that unequivocally established his homosexual <unk> . In love with another Marine , Col. <unk> sees the man die and comes to believe that he is being punished for the " sin " of being gay . Ball removed the sequence because it did not fit the structure of the rest of the film — Col. <unk> was the only character to have a flashback — and because it removed the element of surprise from Col. <unk> \' later pass at Lester . Ball said he had to write it for his own benefit to know what happened to Col. <unk> , though all that remained in later drafts was subtext . \n', ' Ball remained involved throughout production ; he had signed a television show development deal , so had to get permission from his producers to take a year off to be close to American Beauty . Ball was on @-@ set for <unk> and to help interpret his script for all but two days of filming . His original <unk> scenes — in which Ricky and Jane are <unk> for Lester \'s murder after being framed by Col. <unk> — were <unk> in post @-@ production ; the writer later felt the scenes were unnecessary , saying they were a reflection of his " anger and cynicism " at the time of writing ( see " Editing " ) . Ball and <unk> revised the script twice before it was sent to the actors , and twice more before the first read @-@ through . \n', ' The shooting script features a scene in Angela \'s car in which Ricky and Jane talk about death and beauty ; the scene differed from earlier versions , which set it as a " big scene on a freeway " in which the three witness a car crash and see a dead body . The change was a practical decision , as the production was behind schedule and they needed to cut costs . The schedule called for two days to be spent filming the crash , but only half a day was available . Ball agreed , but only if the scene could retain a line of Ricky \'s where he reflects on having once seen a dead homeless woman : " When you see something like that , it \'s like God is looking right at you , just for a second . And if you \'re careful , you can look right back . " Jane asks : " And what do you see ? " Ricky : " Beauty . " Ball said , " They wanted to cut that scene . They said it \'s not important . I said , \' You \'re out of your fucking mind . It \'s one of the most important scenes in the movie ! \' [ ... ] If any one line is the heart and soul of this movie , that is the line . " Another scene was rewritten to accommodate the loss of the freeway sequence ; set in a <unk> , it presents a " turning point " for Jane in that she chooses to walk home with Ricky instead of going with Angela . By the end of filming , the script had been through 10 drafts . \n', '', ' = = = Casting = = = \n', '', ' <unk> had Spacey and <unk> in mind for the leads from the beginning , but DreamWorks executives were <unk> . The studio suggested several <unk> , including Bruce Willis , Kevin <unk> , or John <unk> to play Lester , and Helen Hunt or Holly Hunter to play Carolyn . <unk> did not want a big star " weighing the film down " ; he felt Spacey was the right choice based on his performances in the 1995 films The <unk> <unk> and Seven , and 1992 \'s <unk> Glen Ross . Spacey was surprised ; he said , " I usually play characters who are very quick , very <unk> and smart . [ ... ] I usually <unk> in dark , sort of <unk> waters . This is a man living one step at a time , playing by his instincts . This is actually much closer to me , to what I am , than those other parts . " <unk> offered <unk> the role of Carolyn without the studio \'s consent ; although executives were upset at <unk> , by September 1998 , DreamWorks had entered negotiations with Spacey and <unk> . \n', ' Spacey loosely based Lester \'s early " <unk> " <unk> on Walter <unk> . During the film , Lester \'s physique improves from <unk> to toned ; Spacey worked out during filming to improve his body , but because <unk> shot the scenes out of chronological order , Spacey varied <unk> to portray the stages . Before filming , <unk> and Spacey analyzed Jack <unk> \'s performance in The <unk> ( 1960 ) , because <unk> wanted Spacey to emulate " the way [ <unk> ] moved , the way he looked , the way he was in that office and the way he was an ordinary man and yet a special man " . Spacey \'s <unk> is a <unk> to Sunset Boulevard ( 1950 ) , which is also narrated in <unk> by a dead character . <unk> felt it evoked Lester \'s — and the film \'s — loneliness . <unk> recalled women from her youth to inform her performance : " I used to <unk> constantly . You \'d go to church and see how people present themselves on the outside , and then be inside their house and see the difference . " <unk> and a hair stylist collaborated to create a " <unk> president <unk> " hairstyle , and <unk> and production designer <unk> <unk> researched mail @-@ order <unk> to better establish Carolyn \'s environment of a " spotless suburban manor " . To help <unk> get into Carolyn \'s mindset , <unk> gave her music that he believed Carolyn would like . He lent <unk> the Bobby <unk> version of the song " Don \'t Rain on My Parade " , which she enjoyed and persuaded the director to include it for a scene in which Carolyn sings in her car . \n', ' For the roles of Jane , Ricky , and Angela , DreamWorks gave <unk> <unk> <unk> . By November 1998 , <unk> Birch , Wes Bentley , and Mena <unk> had been cast in the parts — in Birch \'s case , despite the fact she was <unk> for her nude scene . As Birch was 16 at the time she made the film , and thus classified as a minor in the United States , her parents had to approve her brief <unk> scene in the movie . Child labor representatives and they were on the set for the shooting of the scene . Bentley <unk> competition from top actors under the age of 25 to be cast . The 2009 documentary My Big Break followed Bentley , and several other young actors , before and after he landed the part . To prepare , <unk> provided Bentley with a video camera , telling the actor to film what Ricky would . Peter Gallagher and Alison <unk> were cast ( as <unk> Kane and Barbara <unk> ) after filming began in December 1998 . <unk> gave <unk> a book of paintings by <unk> <unk> . He told her , " Your character is in there somewhere . " <unk> cut much of Barbara \'s dialogue , including conversations between Colonel <unk> and her , as he felt that what needed to be said about the pair — their humanity and vulnerability — was conveyed successfully through their shared moments of silence . Chris Cooper plays Colonel <unk> , Scott Bakula plays Jim <unk> , and Sam <unk> plays Jim Berkley . Jim and Jim were deliberately depicted as the most normal , happy — and boring — couple in the film . Ball \'s inspiration for the characters came from a thought he had after seeing a " bland , boring , heterosexual couple " who wore matching clothes : " I can \'t wait for the time when a gay couple can be just as boring . " Ball also included aspects of a gay couple he knew who had the same <unk> . \n', ' <unk> insisted on two weeks of cast rehearsals , although the sessions were not as formal as he was used to in the theater , and the actors could not be present at every one . Several <unk> and suggestions by the actors were incorporated into the script . An early scene showing the <unk> leaving home for work was inserted later on to show the low point that Carolyn and Lester \'s relationship had reached . Spacey and <unk> worked to create a sense of the love that Lester and Carolyn once had for one another ; for example , the scene in which Lester almost <unk> Carolyn after the pair argues over Lester \'s buying a car was originally " strictly contentious " . \n', '', ' = = = Filming = = = \n', '', ' Principal photography lasted about 50 days from December 14 , 1998 , to February 1999 . American Beauty was filmed on soundstages at the Warner Bros. <unk> in Burbank , California , and at Hancock Park and <unk> in Los Angeles . The aerial shots at the beginning and end of the film were captured in <unk> , California , and many of the school scenes were shot at South High School in <unk> , California ; several extras in the gym crowd were South High students . The film is set in an upper middle @-@ class neighborhood in an unidentified American town . Production designer <unk> <unk> likened the <unk> to <unk> , Illinois , but said , " it \'s not about a place , it \'s about an <unk> . [ ... ] The milieu was pretty much <unk> , USA — <unk> mobile <unk> . " The intent was for the setting to reflect the characters , who are also <unk> . <unk> said , " All of them are very strained , and their lives are <unk> . " The <unk> \' household was designed as the reverse of the <unk> \' — the former a pristine ideal , but <unk> and lacking in " inner balance " , leading to Carolyn \'s desire to at least give it the appearance of a " perfect all @-@ American household " ; the <unk> \' home is depicted in " exaggerated darkness [ and ] symmetry " . \n', ' The production selected two adjacent properties on the Warner <unk> \'s " <unk> Street " for the <unk> and <unk> \' homes . The crew rebuilt the houses to incorporate false rooms that established lines of sight — between Ricky and Jane \'s bedroom windows , and between Ricky \'s bedroom and Lester \'s garage . The garage windows were designed specifically to obtain the crucial shot toward the end of the film in which Col. <unk> — watching from Ricky \'s bedroom — mistakenly assumes that Lester is paying Ricky for sex . <unk> made sure to establish the line of sight early on in the film to make the audience feel a sense of familiarity with the shot . The house interiors were filmed on the <unk> , on location , and on soundstages when overhead shots were needed . The inside of the <unk> \' home was shot at a house close to Interstate 405 and Sunset Boulevard in Los Angeles ; the inside of the <unk> \' home was shot in the city \'s Hancock Park neighborhood . Ricky \'s bedroom was designed to be cell @-@ like to suggest his " <unk> " personality , while at the same time blending with the high @-@ tech equipment to reflect his <unk> side . The production deliberately <unk> the use of red , as it was an important thematic signature elsewhere . The <unk> \' home uses cool blues , while the <unk> \' is kept in a " depressed military palette " . \n', ' <unk> \' dominating visual style was deliberate and composed , with a <unk> design that provided " a sparse , almost surreal feeling — a bright , <unk> , hard edged , near <unk> @-@ like take on American <unk> " ; <unk> constantly directed his set <unk> to empty the frame . He made Lester \'s fantasy scenes " more fluid and graceful " , and <unk> made minimal use of <unk> , feeling that stable shots generated more tension . For example , when <unk> used a slow push in to the <unk> \' dinner table , he held the shot because his training as a theater director taught him the importance of putting distance between the characters . He wanted to keep the tension in the scene , so he only cut away when Jane left the table . <unk> did use a hand @-@ held camera for the scene in which Col. <unk> beats Ricky . <unk> said the camera provided the scene with a " <unk> [ ... ] off @-@ balance energy " . He also went hand @-@ held for the <unk> of Ricky \'s <unk> footage . <unk> took a long time to get the quality of Ricky \'s footage to the level he wanted . For the plastic @-@ bag footage , <unk> used wind machines to move the bag in the air . The scene took four takes ; two by the second unit did not satisfy <unk> , so he shot the scene himself . He felt his first take lacked grace , but for the last attempt , he changed the location to the front of a brick wall and added leaves on the ground . <unk> was satisfied by the way the wall gave definition to the outline of the bag . \n', ' <unk> avoided using close @-@ ups , as he believed the technique was <unk> ; he also cited Spielberg \'s advice that he should imagine an audience <unk> at the bottom of the camera monitor , to keep in mind that he was shooting for display on a 40 @-@ foot ( 10 m ) screen . Spielberg — who visited the set a few times — also advised <unk> not to worry about costs if he had a " great idea " toward the end of a long working day . <unk> said , " That happened three or four times , and they are all in the movie . " Despite Spielberg \'s support , DreamWorks and <unk> fought constantly over the schedule and budget , although the studio <unk> little with the film \'s content . Spacey , <unk> and Hall worked for significantly less than their usual rates . American Beauty cost DreamWorks $ 15 million to produce , slightly above their projected sum . <unk> was so dissatisfied with his first three days \' filming that he obtained permission from DreamWorks to <unk> the scenes . He said , " I started with a wrong scene , actually , a comedy scene . And the actors played it way too big : [ ... ] it was badly shot , my fault , badly composed , my fault , bad costumes , my fault [ ... ] ; and everybody was doing what I was asking . It was all my fault . " Aware that he was a novice , <unk> drew on the experience of Hall : " I made a very conscious decision early on , if I didn \'t understand something technically , to say , without embarrassment , \' I don \'t understand what you \'re talking about , please explain it . \' " \n', ' <unk> encouraged some improvisation ; for example , when Lester <unk> in bed beside Carolyn , the director asked Spacey to improvise several <unk> for the act in each take . <unk> said , " I wanted that not just because it was funny [ ... ] but because I didn \'t want it to seem <unk> . I wanted it to seem like he was <unk> it out of his mouth without thinking . [ Spacey ] is so in control — I wanted him to break through . " Spacey obliged , eventually coming up with 35 phrases , but <unk> could not always keep a straight face , which meant the scene had to be shot 10 times . The production used small amounts of computer @-@ generated imagery . Most of the rose <unk> in Lester \'s fantasies were added in post @-@ production , although some were real and had the wires holding them digitally removed . When Lester <unk> about Angela in a rose @-@ <unk> bath , the steam was real , save for in the overhead shot . To position the camera , a hole had to be cut in the ceiling , through which the steam escaped ; it was instead added digitally . \n', '', ' = = = Editing = = = \n', '', ' American Beauty was edited by Christopher <unk> and <unk> <unk> ; <unk> began in the position , but had to leave halfway through post @-@ production because of a scheduling conflict with Me , Myself and Irene ( 2000 ) ( in which Chris Cooper also starred ) . <unk> and an assistant edited the film for 10 days between the appointments . <unk> realized during editing that the film was different from the one he had envisioned . He believed he had been making a " much more whimsical , [ ... ] <unk> " film than what came together in the edit suite . Instead , <unk> was drawn to the emotion and darkness ; he began to use the score and shots he had intended to <unk> to craft the film along these lines . In total , he cut about 30 minutes from his original edit . The opening included a dream in which Lester imagines himself flying above the town . <unk> spent two days filming Spacey against <unk> , but removed the sequence as he believed it to be too whimsical — " like a <unk> brothers movie " — and therefore inappropriate for the tone he was trying to set . The opening in the final cut reused a scene from the middle of the film where Jane tells Ricky to kill her father . This scene was to be the revelation to the audience that the pair was not responsible for Lester \'s death , as the way it was scored and acted made it clear that Jane \'s request was not serious . However , in the portion he used in the opening — and when the full scene plays out later — <unk> used the score and a reaction shot of Ricky to leave a lingering ambiguity as to his guilt . The subsequent shot — an aerial view of the neighborhood — was originally intended as the plate shot for the <unk> effects in the dream sequence . \n', ' <unk> spent more time <unk> the first 10 minutes than the rest of the film taken together . He <unk> several versions of the opening ; the first edit included <unk> scenes in which Jane and Ricky are convicted of Lester \'s murder , but <unk> <unk> these in the last week of editing because he felt they made the film lose its mystery , and because they did not fit with the theme of redemption that had emerged during production . <unk> believed the trial drew focus away from the characters and turned the film " into an episode of <unk> Blue " . Instead , he wanted the ending to be " a poetic mixture of dream and memory and narrative resolution " . When Ball first saw a completed edit , it was a version with truncated versions of these scenes . He felt that they were so short that they " didn \'t really register " . <unk> and he argued , but Ball was more accepting after <unk> cut the sequences completely ; Ball felt that without the scenes , the film was more optimistic and had evolved into something that " for all its darkness had a really romantic heart " . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' Conrad Hall was not the first choice for director of photography ; <unk> believed he was " too old and too experienced " to want the job , and he had been told that Hall was difficult to work with . Instead , <unk> asked Fred <unk> , who turned the job down because he did not like the script . Hall was recommended to <unk> by Tom Cruise , because of Hall \'s work on Without <unk> ( 1998 ) , which Cruise had executive produced . <unk> was directing Cruise \'s then @-@ wife Nicole Kidman in the play The Blue Room during <unk> on American Beauty , and had already <unk> the whole film . Hall was involved for one month during <unk> ; his ideas for lighting the film began with his first reading of the script , and further passes allowed him to refine his approach before meeting <unk> . Hall was initially concerned that audiences would not like the characters ; he only felt able to identify with them during cast rehearsals , which gave him fresh ideas on his approach to the visuals . \n', ' Hall \'s approach was to create peaceful compositions that evoked <unk> , to contrast with the turbulent on @-@ screen events and allow audiences to take in the action . Hall and <unk> first discussed the intended mood of a scene , but he was allowed to light the shot in any way he felt necessary . In most cases , Hall first lit the scene \'s subject by " painting in " the blacks and whites , before adding fill light , which he reflected from <unk> or white card on the ceiling . This approach gave Hall more control over the shadows while keeping the fill light <unk> and the dark areas free of spill . Hall shot American Beauty in a 2 @.@ 39 : 1 aspect ratio in the Super 35 format , using <unk> Vision <unk> <unk> 35 mm film stock . He used Super 35 partly because its larger scope allowed him to capture elements such as the corners of the <unk> @-@ filled pool in its overhead shot , creating a frame around Angela within . He shot the whole film at the same T @-@ stop ( <unk> ) ; given his preference for shooting that wide , Hall favored high @-@ speed stocks to allow for more subtle lighting effects . He used <unk> Platinum cameras with the company \'s <unk> series of prime and <unk> lenses . Hall employed <unk> Vision <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> stock for scenes with daylight effects . He had difficulty adjusting to <unk> \'s newly introduced Vision release print stock , which , combined with his contrast @-@ heavy lighting style , created a look with too much contrast . Hall contacted <unk> , who sent him a batch of <unk> that was 5 % lower in contrast . Hall used a 1 / 8 inch <unk> Black <unk> filter for almost every scene , which he said in <unk> may not have been the best choice , as the optical steps required to blow Super 35 up for its <unk> release print led to a slight amount of degradation ; therefore , the <unk> from the filter was not required . When he saw the film in a theater , Hall felt that the image was slightly unclear and that had he not used the filter , the <unk> from the Super 35 – <unk> conversion would have generated an image closer to what he originally intended . \n', ' A shot where Lester and Ricky share a cannabis joint behind a building came from a misunderstanding between Hall and <unk> . <unk> asked Hall to prepare the shot in his absence ; Hall assumed the characters would look for privacy , so he placed them in a narrow passage between a truck and the building , intending to light from the top of the truck . When <unk> returned , he explained that the characters did not care if they were seen . He removed the truck and Hall had to rethink the lighting ; he lit it from the left , with a large light crossing the actors , and with a soft light behind the camera . Hall felt the consequent wide shot " worked perfectly for the tone of the scene " . Hall made sure to keep rain , or the suggestion of it , in every shot near the end of the film . In one shot during Lester \'s encounter with Angela at the <unk> \' home , Hall created rain effects on the foreground cross lights ; in another , he partly lit the pair through French windows to which he had added material to make the rain run slower , intensifying the light ( although the strength of the outside light was unrealistic for a night scene , Hall felt it justified because of the strong contrasts it produced ) . For the close @-@ ups when Lester and Angela move to the <unk> , Hall tried to keep rain in the frame , lighting through the window onto the ceiling behind Lester . He also used rain boxes to produce rain patterns where he wanted without lighting the entire room . \n', '', ' = = = Music = = = \n', '', ' Thomas Newman \'s score was recorded in Santa Monica , California . He mainly used percussion instruments to create the mood and rhythm , the inspiration for which was provided by <unk> . Newman " favored pulse , rhythm , and color over melody " , making for a more <unk> score than he had previously created . He built each cue around " small , <unk> repeating phrases " — often , the only variety through a " thinning of the texture for eight bars " . The percussion instruments included <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , piano , <unk> , and <unk> ; also featured were guitars , flute , and world music instruments . Newman also used electronic music and on " <unk> " tracks employed more unorthodox methods , such as tapping metal mixing bowls with a finger and using a <unk> mandolin . Newman believed the score helped move the film along without disturbing the " moral ambiguity " of the script : " It was a real delicate balancing act in terms of what music worked to preserve [ that ] . " \n', ' The soundtrack features songs by Newman , Bobby <unk> , The Who , Free , <unk> , The <unk> Who , Bill <unk> , Betty Carter , Peggy Lee , The Folk <unk> , Gomez , and Bob Dylan , as well as two cover versions — The Beatles \' " Because " performed by Elliott Smith , and Neil Young \'s " Don \'t Let It <unk> You Down " performed by Annie Lennox . Produced by the film \'s music supervisor Chris <unk> , an abridged soundtrack album was released on October 5 , 1999 , and went on to be nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Soundtrack Album . An album featuring 19 tracks from Newman \'s score was released on January 11 , 2000 , and won the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album . <unk> considered the score to be one of Newman \'s best , saying it " [ enabled ] the film \'s <unk> aspirations " . In 2006 , the magazine chose the score as one of 20 essential soundtracks it believed spoke to the " complex and innovative relationships between music and screen storytelling " . \n', '', ' = = Release = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' DreamWorks contracted Amazon.com to create the official website , marking the first time that Amazon had created a special section devoted to a feature film . The website included an overview , a photo gallery , cast and crew <unk> , and exclusive interviews with Spacey and <unk> . The film \'s tagline — " look closer " — originally came from a cutting <unk> on Lester \'s workplace <unk> by the set <unk> . DreamWorks ran parallel marketing campaigns and trailers — one aimed at adults , the other at teenagers . Both trailers ended with the poster image of a girl holding a rose . Reviewing the posters of several 1999 films , David <unk> of Entertainment Weekly rated American Beauty \'s highly , saying it evoked the tagline ; he said , " You return to the poster again and again , thinking , this time you \'re gonna find something . " DreamWorks did not want to test screen the film ; according to <unk> , the studio was pleased with it , but he insisted on one where he could question the audience afterward . The studio <unk> agreed and showed the film to a young audience in San Jose , California . <unk> claimed the screening went very well . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> run = = = \n', '', " The film had its world premiere on September 8 , 1999 , at <unk> 's Egyptian Theatre in Los Angeles . Three days later , the film appeared at the Toronto International Film Festival . With the filmmakers and cast in attendance , it screened at several American universities , including the University of California at Berkeley , New York University , the University of California at Los Angeles , the University of Texas at Austin , and Northwestern University . \n", ' On September 15 , 1999 , American Beauty opened to the public in limited release at three theaters in Los Angeles and three in New York . More theaters were added during the limited run , and on October 1 , the film officially entered wide release by screening in <unk> theaters across North America . The film grossed $ 8 @,@ 188 @,@ <unk> over the weekend , ranking third at the box office . <unk> <unk> by the market research firm <unk> gave American Beauty a " B + " grade on average . The theater count hit a high of 1 @,@ <unk> at the end of the month , before a gradual decline . Following American Beauty \'s wins at the 57th Golden Globe Awards , DreamWorks re @-@ expanded the theater presence from a low of 7 in mid @-@ February , to a high of 1 @,@ 990 in March . The film ended its North American theatrical run on June 4 , 2000 , having grossed $ 130 @.@ 1 million . \n', ' American Beauty had its European premiere at the London Film Festival on November 18 , 1999 ; in January 2000 , it began to screen in various territories outside North America . It debuted in Israel to " potent " returns , and limited releases in Germany , Italy , Austria , Switzerland , the Netherlands and Finland followed on January 21 . After January 28 opening weekends in Australia , the United Kingdom , Spain and Norway , American Beauty had earned $ 7 million in 12 countries for a total of $ 12 @.@ 1 million outside North America . On February 4 , American Beauty debuted in France and Belgium . <unk> to <unk> theaters in the United Kingdom , the film ranked first at the box office with $ 1 @.@ 7 million . On the weekend of February 18 — following American Beauty \'s eight nominations for the 72nd Academy Awards — the film grossed $ 11 @.@ 7 million from 21 territories , for a total of $ 65 @.@ 4 million outside North America . The film had " dazzling " <unk> in Hungary , Denmark , the Czech Republic , <unk> , and New Zealand . \n', ' As of February 18 , the most successful territories were the United Kingdom ( $ 15 @.@ 2 million ) , Italy ( $ 10 @.@ 8 million ) , Germany ( $ 10 @.@ 5 million ) , Australia ( $ 6 million ) , and France ( $ 5 @.@ 3 million ) . The Academy Award nominations meant strong performances continued across the board ; the following weekend , American Beauty grossed $ 10 @.@ 9 million in 27 countries , with strong <unk> in Brazil , Mexico , and South Korea . Other high spots included robust returns in Argentina , Greece , and Turkey . On the weekend of March 3 , 2000 , American Beauty debuted strongly in Hong Kong , Taiwan , and Singapore , markets traditionally " not receptive to this kind of <unk> fare " . The impressive South Korean performance continued , with a return of $ 1 @.@ 2 million after nine days . In total , American Beauty grossed $ 130 @.@ 1 million in North America and $ 226 @.@ 2 million internationally , for $ <unk> @.@ 3 million worldwide . \n', '', ' = = = Home media = = = \n', '', ' American Beauty was released on VHS on May 9 , 2000 , and on DVD with the <unk> format on October 24 , 2000 . Before the North American rental release on May 9 , <unk> Video wanted to purchase hundreds of thousands of extra copies for its " guaranteed title " range , whereby anyone who wanted to rent the film would be guaranteed a copy . <unk> and DreamWorks could not agree on a profit @-@ sharing deal , so <unk> ordered two @-@ thirds the number of copies it originally intended . DreamWorks made around one million copies available for rental ; <unk> \'s share would usually have been about 400 @,@ 000 of these . Some <unk> stores only displayed 60 copies , and others did not display the film at all , forcing customers to ask for it . The strategy required staff to read a statement to customers explaining the situation ; <unk> claimed it was only " [ monitoring ] customer demand " due to the reduced availability . <unk> \'s strategy leaked before May 9 , leading to a 30 % order increase from other retailers . In its first week of rental release , American Beauty made $ 6 @.@ 8 million . This return was lower than would have been expected had DreamWorks and <unk> reached an agreement . In the same year , The Sixth <unk> made $ 22 million , while Fight Club made $ 8 @.@ 1 million , though the latter \'s North American theatrical performance was just 29 % that of American Beauty . <unk> \'s strategy also affected rental fees ; American Beauty averaged $ 3 @.@ 12 , compared with $ 3 @.@ 40 for films that <unk> fully promoted . Only 53 % of the film \'s rentals were from large outlets in the first week , compared with the usual 65 % . \n', " The DVD release included a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes <unk> , film audio commentary from <unk> and Ball , and a storyboard presentation with discussion from <unk> and Hall . In the film commentary , <unk> refers to deleted scenes he intended to include in the release . However , these scenes are not on the DVD , as he changed his mind after recording the commentary ; <unk> felt that to show scenes he previously chose not to use would <unk> from the film 's integrity . \n", " On September 21 , 2010 , Paramount Home Entertainment released American Beauty on Blu @-@ ray , as part of Paramount 's <unk> Series . All the extras from the DVD release were present , with the theatrical trailers upgraded to HD . \n", '', ' = = Critical reception = = \n', '', ' American Beauty was widely considered the best film of 1999 by the American press . It received overwhelming praise , chiefly for Spacey , <unk> and Ball . Variety reported that " no other 1999 movie has benefited from such universal <unk> . " It was the best @-@ received title at the Toronto International Film Festival ( <unk> ) , where it won the People \'s Choice award after a ballot of the festival \'s audiences . <unk> \'s director , Piers <unk> , said , " American Beauty was the <unk> of the festival , the film most talked @-@ about . " \n', ' Writing in Variety , Todd McCarthy said the cast ensemble " could not be better " ; he praised Spacey \'s " handling of <unk> , subtle sarcasm , and blunt talk " and the way he <unk> Lester with " genuine feeling " . Janet Maslin in The New York Times said Spacey was at his " <unk> and most agile " to date , and Roger <unk> of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times singled Spacey out for successfully portraying a man who " does <unk> and foolish things [ but who ] doesn \'t <unk> himself " . Kevin Jackson of <unk> & Sound said Spacey impressed in ways distinct from his previous performances , the most satisfying aspect being his portrayal of " both <unk> and hero " . Writing in Film Quarterly , Gary <unk> praised the actors , but said that characters such as Carolyn and Col. <unk> were stereotypes . <unk> accused <unk> and Ball of identifying too readily with Jane and Ricky , saying the latter was their " fantasy figure " — a <unk> boy who \'s an <unk> wealthy artist able to " finance [ his ] own projects " . <unk> said Angela was the most <unk> teenager , in particular with her " <unk> familiar " attempts to " live up to an unworthy image of herself " . Maslin agreed that some characters were unoriginal , but said their detailed <unk> made them memorable . Kenneth <unk> of the Los Angeles Times said the actors <unk> " <unk> " with what were difficult roles ; he called Spacey \'s performance " the energy that drives the film " , saying the actor commanded audience involvement despite Lester not always being sympathetic . " Against considerable odds , we do like [ these characters ] , " <unk> concluded . \n', ' Maslin felt that <unk> directed with " terrific visual <unk> " , saying his <unk> style balanced " the <unk> and bright " and that he evoked the " delicate , <unk> power @-@ playing vignettes " of his theater work . Jackson said <unk> \' theatrical roots rarely showed , and that the " most remarkable " aspect was that Spacey \'s performance did not overshadow the film . He said that <unk> worked the script \'s <unk> smoothly , to the ensemble \'s strengths , and staged the tonal shifts <unk> . McCarthy believed American Beauty a " stunning card of introduction " for film <unk> <unk> and Ball . He said <unk> \' " sure hand " was " as precise and controlled " as his theater work . McCarthy cited Hall \'s involvement as fortunate for <unk> , as the cinematographer was " <unk> " at conveying the themes of a work . <unk> agreed that <unk> \' choice of collaborators was " <unk> " , naming Hall and Newman in particular . <unk> suggested that American Beauty may have benefited from <unk> \' inexperience , as his " anything \'s possible daring " made him attempt beats that more <unk> directors might have avoided . <unk> felt that <unk> \' accomplishment was to " capture and enhance [ the ] <unk> " of Ball \'s script — the simultaneously " <unk> [ ... ] and <unk> real " characters . <unk> , while critical of many of <unk> and Ball \'s choices , admitted the film showed off their " considerable talents " . \n', ' <unk> cited Ball \'s lack of <unk> when writing the film as the reason for its uniqueness , in particular the script \'s subtle changes in tone . McCarthy said the script was " as fresh and distinctive " as any of its American film contemporaries , and praised how it analyzed the characters while not <unk> narrative pace . He called Ball \'s dialogue " tart " and said the characters — Carolyn <unk> — were " deeply drawn " . One other flaw , McCarthy said , was the revelation of Col. <unk> \' homosexuality , which he said evoked " <unk> <unk> " . Jackson said the film <unk> its clichéd setup to become a " wonderfully resourceful and <unk> comedy " . He said that even when the film played for sitcom laughs , it did so with " unexpected nuance " . <unk> criticized how the film made a mystery of Lester \'s murder , believing it <unk> and simply a way of generating suspense . McCarthy cited the production and costume design as <unk> , and said the soundtrack was good at creating " ironic counterpoint [ s ] " to the story . <unk> concluded that American Beauty was " vital but uneven " ; he felt the film \'s examination of " the ways which teenagers and adults imagine each other \'s lives " was its best point , and that although Lester and Angela \'s dynamic was familiar , its romantic irony stood beside " the most enduring literary treatments " of the theme , such as <unk> . Nevertheless , <unk> believed that the film \'s themes of <unk> and conformity in American <unk> were " <unk> " . McCarthy conceded that the setting was familiar , but said it merely provided the film with a " starting point " from which to tell its " subtle and <unk> judged tale " . Maslin agreed ; she said that while it " takes aim at targets that are none too fresh " , and that the theme of <unk> did not surprise , the film had its own " corrosive novelty " . <unk> awarded American Beauty four stars out of four , and <unk> said it was layered , <unk> , complex , and surprising , concluding it was " a hell of a picture " . \n', ' A few months after the film \'s release , reports of a backlash appeared in the American press , and the years since have seen its critical regard <unk> . In 2005 , <unk> named American Beauty as one of 20 " most <unk> movies of all time " ; <unk> accepted the <unk> of the critical <unk> , saying , " I thought some of it was entirely justified — it was a little <unk> at the time . " \n', ' Currently , the film holds an 88 % score on Rotten Tomatoes based on 180 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 ; the critical consensus reads , " <unk> cast and <unk> with dark , acid wit , American Beauty is a smart , provocative high point of late \' 90s mainstream Hollywood film . " Metacritic gives the film a score of 86 , based on 33 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim . " \n', '', ' = = Accolades = = \n', '', ' American Beauty was not considered an immediate favorite to dominate the American awards season . Several other contenders opened at the end of 1999 , and US critics spread their honors among them when compiling their end @-@ of @-@ year lists . The Chicago Film Critics Association and the Broadcast Film Critics Association named the film the best of 1999 , but while the New York Film Critics Circle , the National Society of Film Critics and the Los Angeles Film Critics Association recognized American Beauty , they gave their top awards to other films . By the end of the year , reports of a critical backlash suggested American Beauty was the underdog in the race for Best Picture ; however , at the Golden Globe Awards in January 2000 , American Beauty won Best Film , Best Director and Best Screenplay . \n', ' As the nominations for the 72nd Academy Awards approached , a <unk> had not emerged . DreamWorks had launched a major campaign for American Beauty five weeks before ballots were due to be sent to the 5 @,@ 600 Academy Award voters . Its campaign combined traditional advertising and publicity with more focused strategies . Although direct mail campaigning was prohibited , DreamWorks reached voters by promoting the film in " casual , comfortable settings " in voters \' communities . The studio \'s candidate for Best Picture the previous year , Saving Private Ryan , lost to Shakespeare in Love , so the studio took a new approach by hiring outsiders to provide input for the campaign . It hired three veteran consultants , who told the studio to " think small " . Nancy <unk> encouraged DreamWorks to produce a special about the making of American Beauty , to set up displays of the film in the communities \' <unk> , and to arrange a question @-@ and @-@ answer session with <unk> for the British Academy of Film and Television Arts . Dale <unk> advised the studio to advertise in free publications that circulated in Beverly Hills — home to many voters — in addition to major newspapers . <unk> arranged to screen American Beauty to about 1 @,@ 000 members of the Actors Fund of America , as many participating actors were also voters . Bruce Feldman took Ball to the Santa Barbara International Film Festival , where Ball attended a private dinner in honor of Anthony Hopkins , meeting several voters who were in attendance . \n', ' In February 2000 , American Beauty was nominated for eight Academy Awards ; its closest rivals , The Cider House Rules and The <unk> , received seven nominations each . In March 2000 , the major industry labor organizations all awarded their top honors to American Beauty ; perceptions had shifted — the film was now the favorite to dominate the Academy Awards . American Beauty \'s closest rival for Best Picture was still The Cider House Rules , from <unk> . Both studios mounted aggressive campaigns ; DreamWorks bought 38 % more advertising space in Variety than <unk> . On March 26 , 2000 , American Beauty won five Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Director , Best Actor ( Spacey ) , Best Original Screenplay and Best <unk> . At the 53rd British Academy Film Awards , American Beauty won six of the 14 awards for which it was nominated : Best Film , Best Actor , Best Actress ( <unk> ) , Best <unk> , Best Film Music and Best Editing . In 2000 , the <unk> Guild of America recognized DreamWorks for the best film publicity campaign . In September 2008 , Empire named American Beauty the <unk> " Greatest Movie of All Time " after a poll of 10 @,@ 000 readers , 150 filmmakers , and 50 film critics , the fourth @-@ highest ranked movie from 1999 ( behind Fight Club , The Matrix , and Magnolia ) . In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America ranked the screenplay number 38 on its list of 101 greatest screenplays . \n', " The film was nominated for <unk> 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th <unk> Edition ) in 2007 . \n", '', '', ' = Christopher <unk> = \n', '', ' Christopher <unk> ( September 21 , 1758 – March 1 , 1827 ) was a prominent Massachusetts lawyer , <unk> politician , and U.S. diplomat . Born into a family divided by the American Revolution , <unk> sided with the victorious <unk> , established a successful law practice in Boston , and built a fortune by purchasing Revolutionary government debts at a discount and receiving full value for them from the government . \n', ' <unk> entered politics in 1788 , serving briefly in the Massachusetts legislature before being appointed U.S. District Attorney for Massachusetts . He was then appointed by President George Washington to a diplomatic commission dealing with maritime claims in Great Britain . He returned to Massachusetts in 1804 and <unk> state politics , running unsuccessfully for governor several times before winning in 1809 . He served one term , losing to Democratic @-@ Republican Elbridge Gerry in 1810 . He was appointed to the US Senate by Governor Caleb Strong in 1813 , where he led opposition to the War of 1812 . \n', ' <unk> invested his fortune in a variety of businesses , including important infrastructure projects such as the Middlesex Canal and a bridge across the Charles River . He was a major <unk> in the early textile industry , funding the Boston Manufacturing Company and the <unk> Manufacturing Company , whose business established the city of Lowell , Massachusetts . <unk> was involved in a variety of charitable causes , and was a major benefactor of Harvard College , where the first library was named in his honor . His palatial mansion in <unk> , Massachusetts , now known as <unk> Place , is one of the finest extant examples of <unk> architecture , and has been declared a National Historic Landmark . \n', '', ' = = Early years = = \n', '', " Christopher <unk> was born in Boston on September 21 , 1758 , one of many children of Frances and John <unk> , a successful merchant and <unk> . He was the youngest of their three sons to survive to adulthood . He attended Boston Latin School , and entered Harvard College at the young ( even for the time ) age of thirteen . At the outset of the American Revolutionary War and the Siege of Boston in 1775 , Harvard 's buildings were occupied by the Continental Army , and <unk> temporarily continued his studies in Bradford until Harvard could resume operations in Concord . While at Harvard <unk> participated in a speaking club , and formed significant lifelong friendships with Rufus King and John <unk> . \n", " <unk> graduated in 1776 , and promptly enlisted in the Continental artillery regiment of his brother @-@ in @-@ law Thomas <unk> , where he served as a clerk until 1778 . The <unk> family was divided by the war : <unk> 's father was a <unk> who left Boston when the British Army evacuated the city in March 1776 . <unk> was consequently called upon to support his mother and three sisters , who remained in Boston . In 1779 <unk> successfully petitioned the state for the remaining family 's share of his father 's seized assets . \n", '', ' = = Early legal career = = \n', '', " After his military service <unk> studied law with John Lowell , and was admitted to the bar in 1778 after a comparatively brief tutelage . <unk> 's law practice flourished , in part because many <unk> lawyers had fled Massachusetts . <unk> 's clients included <unk> seeking to recover some of their assets , as well as London @-@ based British merchants with claims to pursue . His <unk> were generally well @-@ reasoned , and he was seen as a successful trial lawyer . \n", ' <unk> grew his fortune by investing carefully in revolutionary currency and bonds . The <unk> he purchased were paper that had been given to Continental Army soldiers in lieu of pay , which they often sold at a steep discount . One batch of <unk> he purchased , for instance , cost him about $ 3 @,@ 700 but had a face value of $ 25 @,@ 000 . In 1785 he married Rebecca <unk> Payne , daughter of a wealthy merchant , maritime <unk> , and director of the Bank of Massachusetts . The couple were known for their social <unk> and became prominent members of Boston society . \n', " In 1786 <unk> became concerned about a rise in anti @-@ lawyer sentiment in Massachusetts . <unk> over harsh policies pursued by Governor James <unk> <unk> into <unk> ' Rebellion , which required militia action to crush in 1787 . <unk> was one of several high @-@ profile lawyers assigned to defend participants in the rebellion ( included in this group were Theodore <unk> , Caleb Strong , James Sullivan , Levi Lincoln , Sr. , and Thomas <unk> ) . Although many rebels were ultimately convicted , a large number received amnesty . In 1788 , <unk> was elected a delegate to the 1789 Massachusetts convention that ratified the United States Constitution . His election was contested because Boston , where he lived , was at the time more inclined toward state power . <unk> nonetheless was strongly <unk> , urging support of the new Constitution . \n", '', ' = = <unk> , banker , and speculator = = \n', '', " In 1788 <unk> was elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives . He took a leading role in adopting the state 's rules for actions required of it by the new federal constitution . By his proposal the legislature decided that presidential electors would be chosen by a joint session . He also proposed that the state House and Senate agree by separate votes on choices for the United States Senate , a process that would significantly reduce popular input to the choice . His choice was ultimately rejected in favor of a process whereby the House selected a slate of candidates , from which the Senate would choose one . In 1789 <unk> decided to stand for reelection , but lost , owing to strong anti @-@ nationalist fervor in Boston at the time . He managed to win a seat later , when a special election was held after <unk> opened several seats . \n", " <unk> 's financial speculations in the late <unk> significantly multiplied his wealth . In 1788 he and Andrew <unk> , a Boston businessman who had retained <unk> for legal services , entered into a secret agreement to purchase Continental <unk> with a face value of $ 100 @,@ 000 in a speculative bid that their value would rise . By late October of that year , the pair had met this goal : <unk> had purchased $ 90 @,@ 000 worth of paper for about $ 20 @,@ 000 , and encouraged <unk> to purchase more than the $ 11 @,@ 000 he had acquired if his funding would allow for it . <unk> also purchased Massachusetts war @-@ related debts , and lobbied Massachusetts <unk> for the U.S. government to assume those as well . \n", " <unk> 's <unk> was realized when in 1790 the United States Congress , acting on a proposal made by Alexander Hamilton and supported by <unk> 's friend Rufus King , passed legislation that exchanged Continental and state paper for new U.S. paper at face value . Not only did <unk> win on this exchange , but the paper he received appreciated in value before he sold it . The exact amount he made is unclear from the surviving documents : John <unk> Adams wrote that <unk> 's speculations made him the wealthiest lawyer in the country . \n", " The success of <unk> 's speculations prompted him to enter a partnership with <unk> , William <unk> and Daniel Parker in an attempt to acquire U.S. foreign debt obligations on favorable terms . Parker was a business partner of <unk> 's , and <unk> was an influential New York businessman and Treasury Department official whose lavish lifestyle impressed <unk> . The partnership promoted sales of U.S. lands in Europe , and sought to acquire U.S. obligations to France . Although <unk> sank $ 10 @,@ 000 into this venture , it failed : more powerful and experienced Dutch <unk> <unk> the Americans . <unk> also engaged in other ventures with these partners , but apparently carefully stayed with financial speculations , and avoided the partners ' less successful land ventures . \n", " Much of <unk> 's financial activity was mediated through the Bank of Massachusetts , where his father @-@ in @-@ law was a director . <unk> himself was elected to its board in 1785 , when he also became a shareholder . During his time on the board the bank <unk> its regulations on loan <unk> , a move that improved the stability of its capital . <unk> used the bank for most of his personal deposits , but also drew on lines of credit for as much as several thousand dollars . The bank shares he held paid relatively high <unk> until 1791 , when the bank received serious competition from the First Bank of the United States . \n", ' The Bank of the United States was established by Alexander Hamilton to provide stable banking services on a national scale , and sought to open a branch in Boston . Hamilton recruited heavily in the Bank of Massachusetts , and <unk> decided to make the move . He sold his shares in the Massachusetts bank , and became a director of the Boston branch of the U.S. Bank . He also purchased 200 shares in the new bank , a relatively large investment . <unk> was influential in making hiring decisions for the branch , and sought to merge state @-@ chartered banks into the organization , arguing that only a nationally chartered bank could provide consistent and stable service . <unk> resigned from the board in 1794 , citing the demands of his law practice . \n', " <unk> 's financial successes enabled him to join the elite society of Boston . In 1789 he purchased a large mansion on fashionable <unk> Square , and also bought a country estate in <unk> that grew over time to 300 acres ( 120 ha ) . He had a house built on the estate , most of which he operated as a gentleman farmer . He and other similarly @-@ situated <unk> formed the Massachusetts Society for <unk> Agriculture , of which he served as a trustee for several years ; the organization was not seen as significantly contributing to advances in agriculture . \n", '', ' = = District attorney and diplomat = = \n', '', " In 1789 President George Washington appointed <unk> the first United States Attorney for Massachusetts as a reward for his support . <unk> controversially refused to resign from the state legislature , arguing that the state constitution 's prohibitions against holding multiple offices did not apply to federal posts . He eventually resigned the legislative seat under protest because of pressure from his fellow legislators . \n", ' <unk> served as district attorney until 1796 . His principal matter of concern was the enforcement of U.S. neutrality with respect to the French Revolutionary Wars . He attempted several times to <unk> the French consul in Boston , Antoine <unk> , for <unk> and operating <unk> out of the Port of Boston , but he was <unk> by local <unk> that <unk> with the French . <unk> was eventually expelled on orders from President George Washington based on evidence provided by <unk> . \n', ' <unk> also promoted anti @-@ French sentiment with political writings in Massachusetts newspapers . Writing under the pseudonym " <unk> " , he denounced the formation of " Democratic Societies " formed to oppose <unk> policy and support pro @-@ French positions . He suggested to President Washington that someone be sent to England to negotiate with the British . John Jay traveled to London in 1794 and negotiated the Jay Treaty , whose ratification <unk> vocally supported . Although <unk> was hostile to French policy , he was on friendly terms with individual Frenchmen : he hosted the future French statesman <unk> when he visited the U.S. \n', ' In 1796 Washington appointed him as a commissioner representing the United States to handle maritime claims under the terms the Jay Treaty . As a result the <unk> moved to England that year , establishing a residence in the fashionable Hyde Park area . The commission was established to <unk> claims emanating from British <unk> of American vessels and cargoes , and from British claims relating to violations of American neutrality in the ongoing French Revolutionary Wars . It consisted of three Americans ( <unk> , William Pinkney , and John <unk> ) and two British commissioners ( John <unk> and Nicholas <unk> ) ; <unk> was chosen by the other four because he was deemed to sufficiently " fair @-@ minded " to cast deciding votes in the event of disagreements . That year he was also elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . \n', ' Although <unk> was well received by the British establishment , the work suffered from what <unk> called a " <unk> of process " , and he considered requesting a transfer in 1798 . In 1800 it ground to a halt because another board established by the treaty to resolve outstanding Revolutionary War claims against the United States had not yet met , and the British stopped the claims processing until resolution of the other issues got underway . <unk> used this break to briefly return to America and assess the condition of his <unk> estate , where the house had been largely destroyed by fire in <unk> . After his return to London , with the commission work still stopped , he and Rebecca embarked on a tour of Europe . They visited Holland , Belgium , and Switzerland , and spent six months in Paris . During this trip , and later ones in England and Scotland , they took note of the architecture of country estates , and began planning a new house for their <unk> property . \n', " The commission resumed its work in early 1802 , and had resolved all outstanding claims by August 1803 . It awarded $ 110 @,@ 000 to British claimants and over $ 6 million to American claimants . The lopsided result is due to the vastly larger number of American claims , but also to some key early decisions that favored American interpretations in the processing of the claims , and by a British administration that sought to remain in America 's good <unk> . \n", " The <unk> 's social circle in England revolved around his good friend Rufus King , who was appointed Ambassador to Great Britain in 1796 , along with other Massachusetts expatriates . When King left his post in May 1803 he named <unk> to head the London embassy as <unk> d <unk> . Although President Thomas Jefferson never issued a formal appointment , the British government accepted his role for the two @-@ month interval between King 's departure and the arrival of James Monroe as King 's replacement . The <unk> sailed for Boston in the spring of 1804 . \n", ' Rebecca <unk> used their exposure to European country estates to design a lavish new building for their <unk> estate during their English <unk> . Designed with the assistance of French architect Joseph @-@ Guillaume <unk> and probably also influenced by the works of English architect Sir John <unk> , the house that was built upon their return to the United States in 1804 ( now known as <unk> Place ) is one of the finest extant examples of <unk> architecture . \n', '', ' = = <unk> and state <unk> = = \n', '', " Soon after his return to the United States , <unk> <unk> state politics , winning election to the Massachusetts Senate . He was active in the state <unk> Party organization , sitting on its secret central committee . He resumed his law practice , in which he took on as a student Daniel Webster . One of the highest profile cases he took on was the 1807 defense of Thomas <unk> , accused of murdering Charles Austin . <unk> , an older <unk> attorney , had been retained to assist in the collection of a debt from Austin 's Republican father . In the politically charged atmosphere of the day in Boston , <unk> , fearing for his own safety , had armed himself with a <unk> pistol . The younger Austin had , apparently on his own initiative , sought to beat <unk> with a cane , and <unk> fatally shot him in the encounter . <unk> was <unk> by Attorney General ( and future <unk> gubernatorial opponent ) James Sullivan , and the defense also included arch @-@ <unk> Harrison Gray <unk> . <unk> argued <unk> acted in self @-@ defense ; <unk> was acquitted of murder by a jury whose <unk> was <unk> and <unk> Paul <unk> after fifteen minutes ' <unk> . \n", ' <unk> also resumed business activities upon his return . He invested in a wide variety of businesses and infrastructure , spurring economic activity in the state . His investments ranged widely , including maritime insurance ( where is father @-@ in @-@ law had made his fortune ) , bridges , locks , canals , and textiles . He was a major <unk> in the Middlesex Canal , the <unk> Bridge ( the first to connect Boston to Cambridge ) , and the Boston Manufacturing Company , whose factory proving the single @-@ site production of textiles was in <unk> near his estate . Not all of his ventures panned out : the canal was in the long run a financial failure , as were efforts with other collaborators to develop <unk> Point , the Cambridge side of the <unk> Bridge . The textile mill , however , was a success , and <unk> invested in the <unk> Manufacturing Company . When it decided to locate in what is now Lowell , Massachusetts , <unk> purchased shares in the <unk> of <unk> and <unk> , which operated ( and still owns today ) the Lowell canals . \n', " In 1806 <unk> won election to the State Senate . That year the Republicans were in the majority , and the election for governor was close enough to require a <unk> . The legislature <unk> the ballots in a partisan manner ( for example , retaining ballots containing <unk> versions of Republican James Sullivan 's name and discarding similar ballots marked for <unk> Caleb Strong ) . <unk> and other <unk> raised a public <unk> , and the legislature relented , eventually <unk> Strong as the winner . \n", " <unk> ran unsuccessfully for Governor of Massachusetts in 1807 and 1808 against a rising tide of <unk> in the state , losing both times to moderate Republican James Sullivan . The <unk> gained control of the state legislature in 1808 in a backlash against Republican economic policies , but <unk> was criticized for his failure to aggressively support state protests against the <unk> Act of 1807 , which had a major negative effect on the state 's large merchant fleet . <unk> was in 1808 elected to the Massachusetts House of Representatives , where he successfully led <unk> efforts to ensure the selection of a <unk> slate of presidential electors . He also spearheaded actions to drive Senator John <unk> Adams from the <unk> Party over his support of Thomas Jefferson 's foreign policy . The legislature elected Adams ' successor nine months early , and gave Adams sufficiently <unk> instructions that he resigned the post and joined with the Republicans . \n", '', ' = = Governor = = \n', '', " <unk> led the <unk> to victory in 1809 against Sullivan 's successor , Levi Lincoln , Sr. , who had taken over as acting governor upon Sullivan 's death late in 1808 . During <unk> 's term the principal domestic issue occupying state politics was a banking crisis stimulated by the federal policy of <unk> trade with Great Britain and France , then embroiled in the Napoleonic Wars . Although the crisis caused a number of bank failures in New England , Massachusetts banks largely escaped unscathed . \n", " Foreign policy played a major role in <unk> 's administration . The legislature passed resolves opposing the federal government 's hardline policy against trade and diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom ( then embroiled in the Napoleonic Wars ) , and <unk> in early 1810 invited Francis James Jackson , who had been rejected as the UK 's ambassador to the US , to visit the state . This pressure may have played a role in President James Madison 's decision to renew relations with the UK and accept Jackson 's credentials . \n", " The <unk> of the war threat , and the choice by the Republicans of the popular Elbridge Gerry as their candidate brought a challenge to <unk> control of Massachusetts in the 1810 elections . The <unk> Gerry and Republican <unk> criticized <unk> for his lavish lifestyle , including his palatial <unk> residence and <unk> activities he organized as governor , and highlighted his <unk> family connections while emphasizing Gerry 's <unk> patriotism . Gerry won the election . Jackson did visit Boston , but he was greeted not by <unk> , but Gerry . <unk> ran against Gerry again in 1811 , but lost in another <unk> campaign . \n", " <unk> was granted an honorary law degree from Harvard in 1809 . He served on the college 's Board of <unk> from 1810 to 1815 and as a Fellow from 1816 to 1820 . Harvard 's first library building , a Gothic structure built in 1838 of <unk> granite , was named in his honor , but was demolished when <unk> Library was built in its place in 1915 . ( This structure is found on the seal of the city of Cambridge . ) One of the residential Winthrop House 's buildings is called <unk> Hall in his honor . \n", '', ' = = United States Senator = = \n', '', ' In the spring of 1813 , he was appointed by Governor Caleb Strong to fill the U.S. Senate seat vacated by the resignation of Senator James Lloyd . He served from May 5 , 1813 to May 30 , 1816 , winning reelection to the seat in 1814 . He opposed the ongoing War of 1812 in these years , with his earlier diplomatic experience providing valuable knowledge to <unk> interests . He expressed approval of the 1814 Hartford Convention in which the New England states aired grievances concerning Republican governance of the country and the conduct of the war . \n', ' <unk> <unk> to the Treaty of <unk> that ended the war , but was unhappy that the nation had not gained anything from the war . He resigned in June 1816 , unhappy with the politics of Washington and suffering from poor health . Although he was no longer active in politics , he continued to express opinions on the subjects of the day , opposing the 1820 Missouri <unk> and <unk> the " great <unk> & <unk> " of <unk> Governor John Brooks . \n', '', ' = = Later years and legacy = = \n', '', ' <unk> remained active in the administration of Harvard , and was active in a number of organizations , including the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Massachusetts Historical Society ( whose president he was from 1806 to 1818 ) . He was also elected a member of the American <unk> Society in 1814 . <unk> spent most of his later years at his country estate in <unk> , suffering from worsening <unk> <unk> that made walking increasingly difficult . His declining health and lack of social scene in <unk> led him in 1822 to return to Boston in the winters . He died on March 1 , 1827 in Boston and is buried in its <unk> <unk> Ground . \n', " <unk> 's wife died in 1834 ; the couple had no children . The major <unk> of the <unk> estate was Harvard ( which received an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 ) , although <unk> were also made to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the Massachusetts Historical Society . The <unk> estate passed through several hands and was subdivided over time . The mansion was saved from demolition by the <unk> Place Society ( established for the purpose of preserving it ) , which now operates it as a museum . It was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1970 . \n", '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', " <unk> ( / <unk> / ; Latin : <unk> Claudius Caesar Augustus <unk> ; 15 December 37 AD – 9 June 68 AD ) was Roman Emperor from 54 to 68 , and the last in the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty . <unk> was adopted by his grand @-@ uncle Claudius to become his heir and successor , and succeeded to the throne in 54 following Claudius ' death . \n", ' <unk> focused much of his attention on diplomacy , trade and enhancing the cultural life of the empire , but according to the historian <unk> he was viewed by the Roman people as <unk> and corrupt . He ordered theatres built and promoted athletic games . During his reign , the <unk> general <unk> conducted a successful war and negotiated peace with the <unk> Empire . His general <unk> <unk> crushed a revolt in Britain . <unk> annexed the <unk> Kingdom to the empire and began the First Jewish – Roman War . \n', " In 64 AD , most of Rome was destroyed in the Great Fire of Rome , which many Romans believed <unk> himself had started in order to clear land for his planned palatial complex , the <unk> <unk> . In 68 , the rebellion of <unk> in Gaul and later the acclamation of <unk> in <unk> drove <unk> from the throne . Facing a false report of being denounced as a public enemy who was to be executed , he committed suicide on 9 June 68 ( the first Roman emperor to do so ) . His death ended the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty , sparking a brief period of civil wars known as the Year of the Four <unk> . <unk> 's rule is often associated with <unk> and extravagance . He is known for many executions , including that of his mother , and the probable murder by poison of his <unk> <unk> . \n", " <unk> was <unk> to have had captured Christians dipped in oil and set on fire in his garden at night as a source of light . This view is based on the writings of <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> , the main surviving sources for <unk> 's reign , but a few surviving sources paint <unk> in a more favourable light . Some sources , including some mentioned above , portray him as an emperor who was popular with the common Roman people , especially in the East . Some modern historians question the reliability of ancient sources when reporting on <unk> 's <unk> acts . \n", '', ' = = Early life = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Family = = = \n', '', ' Lucius <unk> <unk> , <unk> , was born on 15 December 37 in <unk> ( modern <unk> and <unk> ) , near Rome . He was the only son of <unk> <unk> <unk> and <unk> the Younger , sister of Emperor <unk> . \n', " <unk> 's father , <unk> , was the son of Lucius <unk> <unk> ( consul 16 BC ) and <unk> Major . <unk> was thus the grandson of <unk> <unk> <unk> ( consul 32 BC ) and probably <unk> <unk> on his father 's side , and the grandson of Mark Antony and Octavia Minor on his mother 's side . Thus , <unk> had as his paternal grandmother <unk> Major , and also claimed more remote descent from <unk> Minor as a great @-@ grandson — later grandson after Claudius adopted him . \n", " Through Octavia , <unk> was the great @-@ nephew of Caesar Augustus . <unk> 's father had been employed as a <unk> and was a member of <unk> 's staff when the latter travelled to the East ( some apparently think <unk> refers to Augustus 's adopted son <unk> Caesar here , but this is not likely ) . \n", ' <unk> \'s father was described by <unk> as a murderer and a <unk> who was charged by Emperor <unk> with treason , adultery and <unk> . <unk> died , allowing him to escape these charges . <unk> \'s father died of <unk> ( " <unk> " ) in 39 when <unk> was two . \n', " <unk> 's mother was <unk> the Younger , a great @-@ granddaughter of Caesar Augustus and his wife <unk> through their daughter Julia the Elder and her husband Marcus <unk> <unk> . <unk> 's father , <unk> , was a grandson of Augustus 's wife , <unk> , on one side and to Mark Antony and Octavia on the other . <unk> ' mother <unk> Minor , was a daughter of Octavia Minor and Mark Antony . Octavia was Augustus ' elder sister . <unk> was also the adopted son of <unk> . <unk> poisoned her second husband <unk> <unk> , so many ancient historians also accuse her of murdering her third husband , the emperor Claudius . \n", '', ' = = = Ancestry and family = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Rise to power = = = \n', '', " <unk> was not expected to become Emperor because his maternal uncle , <unk> , had begun his reign at the age of 24 with enough time to produce his own heir . <unk> 's mother , <unk> , lost favour with <unk> and was exiled in 39 after her husband 's death . <unk> seized <unk> 's inheritance and sent him to be brought up by his less wealthy aunt , <unk> <unk> , who was the mother of Valeria <unk> , Claudius 's third wife . <unk> , his wife <unk> and their infant daughter Julia <unk> were murdered on 24 January 41 . These events led Claudius , <unk> 's uncle , to become emperor . Claudius allowed <unk> to return from exile . \n", ' Claudius had married twice before marrying Valeria <unk> . His previous marriages produced three children including a son , <unk> , who died at a young age . He had two children with <unk> – <unk> Octavia ( born 40 ) and <unk> ( born 41 ) . <unk> was executed by Claudius in the year 48 . \n', " In 49 AD , Claudius married a fourth time , to <unk> 's mother <unk> , despite her being his niece . To aid Claudius politically , young <unk> was adopted in 50 and took the name <unk> Claudius Caesar <unk> <unk> ( see adoption in Rome ) . <unk> was older than his <unk> <unk> , and thus became heir to the throne . \n", ' <unk> was proclaimed an adult in 51 at the age of 14 . He was appointed <unk> , entered and first addressed the Senate , made joint public appearances with Claudius , and was featured in coinage . In 53 , he married his <unk> <unk> Octavia . \n', '', ' = = Emperor ( 54 – 68 AD ) = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Early rule = = = \n', '', ' Claudius died in 54 and <unk> , taking the name <unk> Claudius Caesar Augustus <unk> , was established as Emperor . Though accounts vary , many ancient historians state <unk> poisoned Claudius . According to Pliny the Elder , she used poison mushrooms . It is not known how much <unk> knew or if he was even involved in the death of Claudius . \n', ' <unk> wrote " ... for even if he was not the instigator of the emperor \'s death , he was at least privy to it , as he openly admitted ; for he used afterwards to <unk> mushrooms , the vehicle in which the poison was administered to Claudius , as " the food of the gods , " as the Greek <unk> has it . At any rate , after Claudius \' death he vented on him every kind of insult , in act and word , charging him now with <unk> and now with cruelty ; for it was a favourite joke of his to say that Claudius had ceased " to play the fool " among mortals , <unk> the first syllable of the word <unk> , and he <unk> many of his decrees and acts as the work of a <unk> and a <unk> . Finally , he neglected to <unk> the place where his body was burned except with a low and mean wall . " \n', " According to <unk> ; <unk> became Emperor at the age of 17 when the news of Claudius ' death was made known , making him the youngest emperor at that time Although , what <unk> may have meant is that he was in his seventeenth year as his date of birth , also listed by <unk> , would have made him 16 at the time of Claudius ' death . <unk> , in book XIII of his Annals , describes <unk> as being ' scarcely out of his <unk> ' at the time he became emperor . Ancient historians describe <unk> 's early reign as being strongly influenced by his mother , <unk> , his tutor Lucius <unk> Seneca , and the <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , especially in the first year . Other tutors were less often mentioned , such as Alexander of <unk> . \n", ' Very early in <unk> \'s rule , problems arose from competition for influence between <unk> and <unk> \'s two main advisers , Seneca and <unk> . <unk> also attempted to influence the young <unk> . <unk> also is mentioned by ancient sources as " <unk> for her son ( <unk> ) " . This <unk> continued as is evidenced by the coin of the both of them . It is extremely unusual to see a women \'s face on a coin in the ancient world . It is because of this position of power <unk> felt jealous as Seneca in particular rose up in <unk> \'s court as he offered the advice <unk> wanted to hear unlike his mother . \n', " In 54 , <unk> tried to sit down next to <unk> while he met with an Armenian envoy , but Seneca stopped her and prevented a <unk> scene ( as it was <unk> at that time for a woman to be in the same room as men doing official business ) . <unk> 's friends also <unk> <unk> and told <unk> to <unk> of his mother . \n", ' <unk> was reportedly unsatisfied with his marriage to Octavia and entered into an affair with <unk> <unk> , a former slave . In 55 , <unk> attempted to intervene in favor of Octavia and demanded that her son dismiss <unk> . <unk> , with the support of Seneca , resisted the intervention of his mother in his personal affairs . \n', " With <unk> 's influence over her son severed , she reportedly began pushing for <unk> , <unk> 's <unk> , to become emperor . Nearly fourteen @-@ year @-@ old <unk> , heir @-@ designate prior to <unk> 's adoption , was still legally a minor , but was approaching legal adulthood . According to <unk> , <unk> hoped that with her support , <unk> , being the blood son of Claudius , would be seen as the true heir to the throne by the state over <unk> . However , the youth died suddenly and suspiciously on 12 February 55 , the very day before his proclamation as an adult had been set . \n", ' <unk> claimed that <unk> died from an <unk> seizure , but ancient historians all claim <unk> \' death came from <unk> \'s poisoning him . <unk> , he enlisted the services of <unk> , a woman who specialized in the manufacture of poisons . She devised a mixture to kill <unk> , but after testing it unsuccessfully on a slave , <unk> angrily threatened to have her put to death if she did not come up with something usable . <unk> then devised a new <unk> that she promised would " kill <unk> than a viper . " \n', ' Her promise was fulfilled after <unk> consumed it at a dinner party from water used to cool his wine , which had already been <unk> , and succumbed within minutes . After the death of <unk> , <unk> was accused of <unk> Octavia and <unk> ordered her out of the imperial residence . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and consolidation of power = = = \n', '', ' Over time , <unk> became progressively more powerful , freeing himself of his advisers and eliminating rivals to the throne . In 55 , he removed Marcus Antonius Pallas , an ally of <unk> , from his position in the treasury . Pallas , along with <unk> , was accused of conspiring against the Emperor to bring <unk> <unk> to the throne . Seneca was accused of having relations with <unk> and <unk> . Seneca succeeded in having himself , Pallas and <unk> acquitted . According to <unk> <unk> , at this time , Seneca and <unk> reduced their role in governing from careful management to mere <unk> of <unk> . \n', ' In 58 , <unk> became romantically involved with <unk> <unk> , the wife of his friend and future emperor <unk> . Reportedly because a marriage to <unk> and a divorce from Octavia did not seem politically feasible with <unk> alive , <unk> ordered the murder of his mother in 59 . A number of modern historians find this an unlikely motive as <unk> did not marry <unk> until 62 . \n', " Additionally , according to <unk> , <unk> did not divorce her husband until after <unk> 's death , making it unlikely that the already married <unk> would be pressing <unk> for marriage . Some modern historians <unk> that <unk> 's execution of <unk> was prompted by her plotting to set <unk> <unk> on the throne . According to <unk> , <unk> tried to kill his mother through a <unk> planned by his <unk> tutor <unk> . Instead , it took the life of <unk> 's friend , <unk> <unk> . When <unk> survived , he had her executed by <unk> and framed it as a suicide . The incident is also recorded by <unk> . \n", " In 62 , <unk> 's adviser , <unk> , died . Additionally , Seneca was again faced with <unk> charges . Seneca asked <unk> for permission to retire from public affairs . <unk> divorced and banished Octavia on grounds of infertility , leaving him free to marry the pregnant <unk> . After public protests , <unk> was forced to allow Octavia to return from exile , but she was executed shortly after her return . \n", " <unk> also was reported to have kicked <unk> to death in 65 before she could have his second child . However , modern historians , noting <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> 's possible bias against <unk> and the likelihood that they did not have <unk> accounts of private events , <unk> that <unk> may have died because of complications of <unk> or childbirth . \n", ' <unk> of treason being plotted against <unk> and the Senate first appeared in 62 . The Senate ruled that <unk> , a <unk> , should be put to death for speaking ill of <unk> at a party . Later , <unk> ordered the exile of <unk> <unk> who <unk> the Senate in a book . <unk> writes that the roots of the conspiracy led by <unk> <unk> <unk> began in this year . To consolidate power , <unk> executed a number of people in 62 and 63 including his rivals Pallas , <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . According to <unk> , <unk> " showed neither discrimination nor <unk> in putting to death <unk> he pleased " during this period . \n', " <unk> 's consolidation of power also included a slow <unk> of authority from the Senate . In 54 , <unk> promised to give the Senate powers equivalent to those under Republican rule . By 65 , <unk> complained that they had no power left and this led to the <unk> conspiracy . \n", '', ' = = = Other relationships = = = \n', '', ' When <unk> \'s wife <unk> <unk> died in 65 , <unk> went into deep mourning . Her body was not <unk> , it was <unk> with spices , embalmed and put in the <unk> of Augustus . She was given a state funeral . <unk> praised her during the funeral <unk> and gave her divine honors . It is said that <unk> " burned ten years \' worth of Arabia \'s incense production at her funeral . \n', " In the beginning of 66 , he married <unk> <unk> . She was already married when she became <unk> 's mistress in 65 AD , with <unk> 's husband being driven to suicide in 66 , so <unk> could marry <unk> . She was one of the few of <unk> 's courtiers who survived the fall of his reign . \n", " In 67 , <unk> ordered a young <unk> , <unk> , to be <unk> and then married him . According to Dion <unk> , <unk> bore an <unk> resemblance to <unk> , and <unk> even called him by his dead wife 's name . \n", '', ' = = = Administrative policies = = = \n', '', ' Over the course of his reign , <unk> often made <unk> that pleased the lower class . <unk> was criticized as being obsessed with personal popularity . \n', ' <unk> began his reign in 54 by promising the Senate more autonomy . In this first year , he forbade others to refer to him with regard to <unk> , for which he was praised by the Senate . <unk> was known for spending his time visiting <unk> and <unk> during this period . \n', ' In 55 , <unk> began taking on a more active role as an administrator . He was consul four times between 55 and 60 . During this period , some ancient historians speak fairly well of <unk> and contrast it with his later rule . \n', ' Under <unk> , restrictions were put on the amount of bail and fines . Also , fees for lawyers were limited . There was a discussion in the Senate on the <unk> of the freedmen class , and a strong demand was made that patrons should have the right of <unk> freedom . <unk> supported the freedmen and ruled that patrons had no such right . \n', ' The Senate tried to pass a law in which the crimes of one slave applied to all slaves within a household . Despite riots from the people , <unk> supported the Senate on their measure , and deployed troops to organise the execution of 400 slaves affected by the law . However , he vetoed strong measures against the freedmen affected by the case . \n', ' After tax collectors were accused of being too harsh to the poor , <unk> transferred collection authority to lower commissioners . <unk> banned any magistrate or <unk> from exhibiting public entertainment for fear that the venue was being used as a method to sway the populace . Additionally , there were many <unk> and <unk> of government officials along with arrests for <unk> and corruption . \n', ' When further complaints arose that the poor were being overly <unk> , <unk> attempted to repeal all indirect taxes . The Senate convinced him this action would bankrupt the public treasury . As a compromise , taxes were cut from 4 @.@ 5 % to 2 @.@ 5 % . Additionally , secret government tax records were ordered to become public . To lower the cost of food imports , merchant ships were declared tax @-@ exempt . \n', ' In imitation of the Greeks , <unk> built a number of <unk> and theatres . <unk> <unk> shows were also held . <unk> also established the <unk> <unk> . The festival included games , poetry , and theater . Historians indicate that there was a belief that theatre led to <unk> . Others considered that to have performers dressed in Greek clothing was old fashioned . Some questioned the large public expenditure on entertainment . \n', " In 64 , Rome burned . <unk> enacted a public relief effort as well as significant reconstruction . A number of other major construction projects occurred in <unk> 's late reign . <unk> had the marshes of <unk> filled with rubble from the fire . He erected the large <unk> <unk> . In 67 , <unk> attempted to have a canal dug at the Isthmus of <unk> . Ancient historians state that these projects and others exacerbated the drain on the State 's budget . \n", " The cost to rebuild Rome was immense , requiring funds the state treasury did not have . <unk> <unk> the Roman currency for the first time in the Empire 's history . He reduced the weight of the <unk> from 84 per Roman pound to 96 ( 3 @.@ 85 grams to 3 @.@ 35 grams ) . He also reduced the silver purity from 99 @.@ 5 % to 93 @.@ 5 % — the silver weight dropping from 3 @.@ 83 grams to 3 @.@ 4 grams . Furthermore , <unk> reduced the weight of the <unk> from 40 per Roman pound to 45 ( 8 grams to 7 @.@ 2 grams ) . \n", " Between 62 and 67 , according to <unk> the Elder and Seneca , <unk> promoted an expedition to discover the sources of the Nile River . It was the first exploration of equatorial Africa from Europe in history . However , <unk> 's expedition up the Nile failed upon reaching the impenetrable <unk> of present @-@ day South Sudan . \n", ' The economic policy of <unk> is a point of debate among scholars . According to ancient historians , <unk> \'s construction projects were overly extravagant and the large number of <unk> under <unk> left Italy " thoroughly exhausted by contributions of money " with " the provinces ruined . " Modern historians , though , note that the period was riddled with <unk> and that it is likely that <unk> \'s spending came in the form of public works projects and charity intended to ease economic troubles . \n', '', ' = = = Great Fire of Rome ( 64 AD ) = = = \n', '', ' The Great Fire of Rome erupted on the night of 18 July to 19 July 64 . The fire started at the southeastern end of the Circus <unk> in shops selling flammable goods . \n', ' The extent of the fire is uncertain . According to <unk> , who was nine at the time of the fire , it spread quickly and burned for over five days . It destroyed three of fourteen Roman districts and severely damaged seven . The only other historian who lived through the period and mentioned the fire is Pliny the Elder , who wrote about it in passing . Other historians who lived through the period ( including <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> and <unk> ) make no mention of it in what remains of their work . \n', ' It is uncertain who or what actually caused the fire — whether accident or <unk> . <unk> and <unk> <unk> favor <unk> as the <unk> , so he could build a palatial complex . <unk> mentions that Christians confessed to the crime , but it is not known whether these <unk> were induced by torture . However , accidental fires were common in ancient Rome . In fact , Rome suffered other large fires in 69 and in 80 . \n', ' It was said by <unk> and <unk> <unk> that <unk> sang the " <unk> of <unk> " in stage costume while the city burned . Popular legend claims that <unk> played the <unk> at the time of the fire , an anachronism based merely on the concept of the <unk> , a <unk> instrument associated with <unk> and his performances . ( The <unk> was not invented until the 10th century . ) <unk> \'s account , however , has <unk> in <unk> at the time of the fire . <unk> also said that <unk> playing his <unk> and singing while the city burned was only rumor . \n', " According to <unk> , upon hearing news of the fire , <unk> returned to Rome to organize a relief effort , which he paid for from his own funds . <unk> 's contributions to the relief extended to personally taking part in the search for and rescue of victims of the <unk> , spending days searching the debris without even his <unk> . After the fire , <unk> opened his palaces to provide shelter for the homeless , and arranged for food supplies to be delivered in order to prevent starvation among the survivors . \n", ' In the wake of the fire , he made a new urban development plan . Houses after the fire were spaced out , built in brick , and faced by <unk> on wide roads . <unk> also built a new palace complex known as the <unk> <unk> in an area cleared by the fire . This included lush artificial landscapes and a 30 @-@ meter @-@ tall statue of himself , the <unk> of <unk> . The size of this complex is debated ( from 100 to 300 acres ) . To find the necessary funds for the reconstruction , tributes were imposed on the provinces of the empire . \n', ' <unk> , in one of the earliest non @-@ Christian references to the origins of Christianity , notes that the population searched for a <unk> and rumors held <unk> responsible . To <unk> blame , <unk> targeted Christians . He ordered Christians to be thrown to dogs , while others were <unk> and burned . \n', '', ' = = = Public performances = = = \n', '', ' <unk> enjoyed driving a one @-@ horse chariot , singing to the <unk> and poetry . He even composed songs that were performed by other <unk> throughout the empire . At first , <unk> only performed for a private audience . \n', ' In 64 AD . , <unk> began singing in public in <unk> in order to improve his popularity . He also sang at the second <unk> <unk> in 65 . It was said that <unk> <unk> the attention , but historians also write that <unk> was encouraged to sing and perform in public by the Senate , his inner circle and the people . Ancient historians strongly criticize his choice to perform , calling it <unk> . \n', ' <unk> was persuaded to participate in the Olympic Games of 67 in order to improve relations with Greece and display Roman dominance . As a competitor , <unk> raced a ten @-@ horse chariot and nearly died after being thrown from it . He also performed as an actor and a singer . Though <unk> <unk> in his racing ( in one case , dropping out entirely before the end ) and acting competitions , he won these crowns nevertheless and <unk> them when he returned to Rome . The victories are attributed to <unk> <unk> the judges and his status as emperor . \n', '', ' = = = War and peace with <unk> = = = \n', '', " Shortly after <unk> 's accession to the throne in 54 , the Roman vassal kingdom of Armenia <unk> their Iberian prince <unk> and he was replaced with the <unk> prince <unk> . This was seen as a <unk> invasion of Roman territory . There was concern in Rome over how the young Emperor would handle the situation . <unk> reacted by immediately sending the military to the region under the command of <unk> <unk> <unk> . The <unk> temporarily relinquished control of Armenia to Rome . \n", ' The peace did not last and full @-@ scale war broke out in 58 . The <unk> king <unk> I refused to remove his brother <unk> from Armenia . The <unk> began a full @-@ scale invasion of the Armenian kingdom . Commander <unk> responded and repelled most of the <unk> army that same year . <unk> retreated and Rome again controlled most of Armenia . \n', ' <unk> was acclaimed in public for this initial victory . <unk> , a <unk> noble raised in Rome , was installed by <unk> as the new ruler of Armenia . <unk> was appointed governor of Syria as a reward . \n', ' In 62 , <unk> invaded the <unk> province of <unk> . Again , Rome and <unk> were at war and this continued until 63 . <unk> began building up for a strike against the Roman province of Syria . <unk> tried to convince <unk> to continue the war , but <unk> opted for a peace deal instead . There was anxiety in Rome about eastern grain supplies and a budget deficit . \n', ' The result was a deal where <unk> again became the Armenian king , but was crowned in Rome by Emperor <unk> . In the future , the king of Armenia was to be a <unk> prince , but his appointment required approval from the Romans . <unk> was forced to come to Rome and <unk> in ceremonies meant to display Roman dominance . \n', ' This peace deal of 63 was a considerable victory for <unk> politically . <unk> became very popular in the eastern provinces of Rome and with the <unk> as well . The peace between <unk> and Rome lasted 50 years until Emperor Trajan of Rome invaded Armenia in 114 . \n', '', ' = = = Other major power struggles and rebellions = = = \n', '', " The war with <unk> was not <unk> 's only major war but he was both criticized and praised for an aversion to battle . Like many emperors , <unk> faced a number of rebellions and power struggles within the empire . \n", " British <unk> of 60 – 61 ( <unk> 's Uprising ) \n", ' In 60 , a major rebellion broke out in the province of Britannia . While the governor <unk> <unk> <unk> and his troops were busy capturing the island of Mona ( Anglesey ) from the <unk> , the tribes of the southeast staged a revolt led by queen <unk> of the <unk> . <unk> and her troops destroyed three cities before the army of <unk> could return , receive reinforcements , and quell the rebellion in 61 . Fearing <unk> himself would provoke further rebellion , <unk> replaced him with the more passive <unk> <unk> <unk> . \n', ' The <unk> <unk> of 65 \n', ' In 65 , <unk> <unk> <unk> , a Roman statesman , organized a conspiracy against <unk> with the help of <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> , a <unk> and a <unk> of the <unk> Guard . According to <unk> , many conspirators wished to " rescue the state " from the emperor and restore the Republic . The <unk> <unk> discovered the conspiracy and reported it to <unk> \'s secretary , <unk> . As a result , the conspiracy failed and its members were executed including <unk> , the poet . <unk> \'s previous advisor , Seneca was ordered to commit suicide after admitting he discussed the plot with the conspirators . \n', ' The First Jewish War of 66 – 70 \n', " In 66 , there was a Jewish revolt in Judea stemming from Greek and Jewish religious tension . In 67 , <unk> dispatched <unk> to restore order . This revolt was eventually put down in 70 , after <unk> 's death . This revolt is famous for Romans breaching the walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem . \n", '', ' = = = The revolt of <unk> and <unk> and the death of <unk> = = = \n', '', " In March 68 , <unk> Julius <unk> , the governor of Gallia <unk> , rebelled against <unk> 's tax policies . Lucius <unk> Rufus , the governor of <unk> Superior , was ordered to put down <unk> 's rebellion . In an attempt to gain support from outside his own province , <unk> called upon <unk> <unk> <unk> , the governor of <unk> <unk> , to join the rebellion and further , to declare himself emperor in opposition to <unk> . \n", " At the Battle of <unk> in May 68 , <unk> ' forces easily defeated those of <unk> and the latter committed suicide . However , after putting down this one rebel , <unk> ' <unk> attempted to proclaim their own commander as Emperor . <unk> refused to act against <unk> , but the discontent of the <unk> of Germany and the continued opposition of <unk> in Spain did not <unk> well for him . \n", ' While <unk> had retained some control of the situation , support for <unk> increased despite his being officially declared a public enemy . The prefect of the <unk> Guard , <unk> <unk> <unk> , also abandoned his allegiance to the Emperor and came out in support for <unk> . \n', ' In response , <unk> fled Rome with the intention of going to the port of <unk> and , from there , to take a fleet to one of the still @-@ loyal eastern provinces . According to <unk> , <unk> abandoned the idea when some army officers openly refused to obey his commands , responding with a line from <unk> \'s <unk> : " Is it so <unk> a thing then to die ? " <unk> then <unk> with the idea of fleeing to <unk> , throwing himself upon the mercy of <unk> , or to appeal to the people and beg them to pardon him for his past offences " and if he could not <unk> their hearts , to <unk> them at least to allow him the prefecture of Egypt " . <unk> reports that the text of this speech was later found in <unk> \'s writing desk , but that he <unk> not give it from fear of being torn to pieces before he could reach the <unk> . \n', ' <unk> returned to Rome and spent the evening in the palace . After sleeping , he <unk> at about midnight to find the palace guard had left . <unk> messages to his friends \' palace chambers for them to come , he received no answers . Upon going to their chambers personally , he found them all abandoned . When he called for a <unk> or anyone else adept with a sword to kill him , no one appeared . He cried , " Have I neither friend nor <unk> ? " and ran out as if to throw himself into the Tiber . \n', ' Returning , <unk> sought for some place where he could hide and collect his thoughts . An imperial <unk> , <unk> , offered his villa , located 4 miles outside the city . Travelling in disguise , <unk> and four loyal freedmen , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , reached the villa , where <unk> ordered them to dig a grave for him . \n', " At this time , a <unk> arrived with a report that the Senate had declared <unk> a public enemy and that it was their intention to execute him by beating him to death and that armed men had been sent to apprehend him for the act to take place in the <unk> . The Senate actually was still reluctant and <unk> on the right course of action as <unk> was the last member of the Julio @-@ <unk> Family . Indeed , most of the <unk> had served the imperial family all their lives and felt a sense of loyalty to the deified bloodline , if not to <unk> himself . The men actually had the goal of returning <unk> back to the Senate , where the Senate hoped to work out a compromise with the <unk> governors that would preserve <unk> 's life , so that at least a future heir to the dynasty could be produced . \n", ' <unk> , however , did not know this , and at the news brought by the <unk> , he prepared himself for suicide , pacing up and down <unk> " <unk> <unk> <unk> " which translates to English as " What an artist dies in me . " <unk> his <unk> , he first <unk> for one of his companions to set an example by first killing himself . At last , the sound of approaching horsemen drove <unk> to face the end . However , he still could not bring himself to take his own life but instead he forced his private secretary , <unk> , to perform the task . \n', ' When one of the horsemen entered , upon his seeing <unk> all but dead he attempted to stop the bleeding in vain . <unk> \'s final words were " Too late ! This is fidelity ! " He died on 9 June 68 , the anniversary of the death of Octavia , and was buried in the <unk> of the <unk> <unk> , in what is now the Villa <unk> ( <unk> Hill ) area of Rome . \n', ' With his death , the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty ended . The Senate , when news of his death reached Rome , posthumously declared <unk> a public enemy to appease the coming <unk> ( as the Senate had initially declared <unk> as a public enemy ) and proclaimed <unk> the new emperor . Chaos would ensue in the year of the Four <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Post mortem = = = \n', '', ' According to <unk> and <unk> <unk> , the people of Rome celebrated the death of <unk> . <unk> , though , describes a more complicated political environment . <unk> mentions that <unk> \'s death was welcomed by Senators , nobility and the upper class . The lower @-@ class , slaves , <unk> of the arena and the theater , and " those who were supported by the famous excesses of <unk> " , on the other hand , were upset with the news . Members of the military were said to have mixed feelings , as they had allegiance to <unk> , but were <unk> to overthrow him . \n', ' Eastern sources , namely <unk> II and <unk> of <unk> , mention that <unk> \'s death was <unk> as he " restored the liberties of <unk> with a wisdom and <unk> quite alien to his character " and that he " held our liberties in his hand and respected them . " \n', ' Modern scholarship generally holds that , while the Senate and more well @-@ off individuals welcomed <unk> \'s death , the general populace was " loyal to the end and beyond , for <unk> and <unk> both thought it worthwhile to appeal to their nostalgia . " \n', ' <unk> \'s name was erased from some monuments , in what Edward <unk> regards as an " outburst of private zeal " . Many portraits of <unk> were reworked to represent other figures ; according to Eric R. <unk> , over fifty such images survive . This reworking of images is often explained as part of the way in which the memory of disgraced emperors was condemned posthumously ( see <unk> <unk> ) . <unk> , however , doubts that the practice is necessarily negative and notes that some continued to create images of <unk> long after his death . \n', ' The civil war during the year of the Four <unk> was described by ancient historians as a <unk> period . According to <unk> , this instability was rooted in the fact that emperors could no longer rely on the perceived legitimacy of the imperial bloodline , as <unk> and those before him could . <unk> began his short reign with the execution of many allies of <unk> and possible future enemies . One such notable enemy included <unk> <unk> , who claimed to be the son of Emperor <unk> . \n', ' <unk> <unk> <unk> . <unk> was said to be liked by many soldiers because he had been a friend of <unk> \'s and resembled him somewhat in temperament . It was said that the common Roman hailed <unk> as <unk> himself . <unk> used " <unk> " as a surname and <unk> many statues to <unk> . <unk> <unk> <unk> . <unk> began his reign with a large funeral for <unk> complete with songs written by <unk> . \n', " After <unk> 's suicide in 68 , there was a widespread belief , especially in the eastern provinces , that he was not dead and somehow would return . This belief came to be known as the <unk> <unk> Legend . \n", " The legend of <unk> 's return lasted for hundreds of years after <unk> 's death . Augustine of <unk> wrote of the legend as a popular belief in 422 . \n", " At least three <unk> <unk> emerged leading rebellions . The first , who sang and played the <unk> or <unk> and whose face was similar to that of the dead emperor , appeared in 69 during the reign of <unk> . After persuading some to recognize him , he was captured and executed . <unk> during the reign of Titus ( 79 – 81 ) , another <unk> appeared in Asia and sang to the accompaniment of the <unk> and looked like <unk> but he , too , was killed . Twenty years after <unk> 's death , during the reign of <unk> , there was a third <unk> . He was supported by the <unk> , who only <unk> gave him up , and the matter almost came to war . \n", '', ' = = Physical appearance = = \n', '', ' In his book The Lives of the Twelve <unk> , <unk> describes <unk> as " about the average height , his body marked with spots and <unk> , his hair light blonde , his features regular rather than attractive , his eyes blue and somewhat weak , his neck over thick , his belly prominent , and his legs very slender . " \n', '', ' = = Historiography = = \n', '', " The history of <unk> 's reign is problematic in that no historical sources survived that were contemporary with <unk> . These first histories at one time did exist and were described as biased and <unk> , either overly critical or praising of <unk> . The original sources were also said to contradict on a number of events . Nonetheless , these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on <unk> written by the next generations of historians . A few of the contemporary historians are known by name . <unk> <unk> , <unk> Rufus and Pliny the Elder all wrote condemning histories on <unk> that are now lost . There were also pro @-@ <unk> histories , but it is unknown who wrote them or for what <unk> <unk> was praised . \n", " The bulk of what is known of <unk> comes from <unk> , <unk> and <unk> <unk> , who were all of the <unk> class . <unk> and <unk> wrote their histories on <unk> over fifty years after his death , while <unk> <unk> wrote his history over 150 years after <unk> 's death . These sources contradict on a number of events in <unk> 's life including the death of Claudius , the death of <unk> , and the Roman fire of 64 , but they are consistent in their condemnation of <unk> . \n", ' A handful of other sources also add a limited and varying perspective on <unk> . Few surviving sources paint <unk> in a favourable light . Some sources , though , portray him as a competent emperor who was popular with the Roman people , especially in the east . \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> ( c . 155 – <unk> ) was the son of <unk> <unk> , a Roman senator . He passed the greater part of his life in public service . He was a senator under <unk> and governor of <unk> after the death of Septimius <unk> ; and afterwards <unk> consul around 205 , and also <unk> in Africa and <unk> . \n', " Books 61 – 63 of <unk> 's Roman History describe the reign of <unk> . Only fragments of these books remain and what does remain was abridged and altered by John <unk> , an 11th @-@ century monk . \n", ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> ( c . 40 – 120 ) , a Greek philosopher and historian , wrote the Roman people were very happy with <unk> and would have allowed him to rule indefinitely . They <unk> for his rule once he was gone and embraced <unk> when they appeared : \n', ' Indeed the truth about this has not come out even yet ; for so far as the rest of his subjects were concerned , there was nothing to prevent his continuing to be Emperor for all time , seeing that even now everybody wishes he were still alive . And the great majority do believe that he still is , although in a certain sense he has died not once but often along with those who had been firmly convinced that he was still alive . \n', ' <unk> \n', " <unk> ( c . 55 – 135 ) was the slave to <unk> 's <unk> <unk> . He makes a few passing negative comments on <unk> 's character in his work , but makes no remarks on the nature of his rule . He describes <unk> as a spoiled , angry and unhappy man . \n", ' <unk> \n', ' The historian <unk> ( c . 37 – 100 ) , while calling <unk> a <unk> , was also the first to mention bias against <unk> . Of other historians , he said : \n', ' But I <unk> any further discourse about these affairs ; for there have been a great many who have composed the history of <unk> ; some of which have departed from the truth of facts out of favour , as having received benefits from him ; while others , out of hatred to him , and the great ill @-@ will which they bore him , have so <unk> <unk> against him with their lies , that they <unk> deserve to be condemned . Nor do I wonder at such as have told lies of <unk> , since they have not in their writings preserved the truth of history as to those facts that were earlier than his time , even when the actors could have no way incurred their hatred , since those writers lived a long time after them . \n', ' <unk> \n', " Though more of a poet than historian , <unk> ( c . 39 – 65 ) has one of the <unk> accounts of <unk> 's rule . He writes of peace and prosperity under <unk> in contrast to previous war and <unk> . Ironically , he was later involved in a conspiracy to overthrow <unk> and was executed . \n", ' <unk> \n', ' <unk> II " the <unk> " ( c . 172 – 250 ) spoke of <unk> in the Life of <unk> <unk> ( Books 4 – 5 ) . Though he has a generally bad or dim view of <unk> , he speaks of others \' positive reception of <unk> in the East . \n', ' Pliny the Elder \n', ' The history of <unk> by Pliny the Elder ( c . 24 – 79 ) did not survive . Still , there are several references to <unk> in Pliny \'s Natural <unk> . Pliny has one of the worst opinions of <unk> and calls him an " enemy of mankind . " \n', ' <unk> \n', ' <unk> ( c . 46 – 127 ) mentions <unk> indirectly in his account of the Life of <unk> and the Life of <unk> . <unk> is portrayed as a <unk> , but those that replace him are not described as better . \n', ' Seneca the Younger \n', " It is not surprising that Seneca ( c . 4 BC – 65 ) , <unk> 's teacher and advisor , writes very well of <unk> . \n", ' <unk> \n', ' <unk> ( c . 69 – 130 ) was a member of the <unk> order , and he was the head of the department of the imperial correspondence . While in this position , <unk> started writing biographies of the emperors , <unk> the <unk> and sensational aspects . \n', ' <unk> \n', ' The Annals by <unk> ( c . 56 – 117 ) is the most detailed and comprehensive history on the rule of <unk> , despite being incomplete after the year 66 . <unk> described the rule of the Julio @-@ <unk> emperors as generally unjust . He also thought that existing writing on them was <unk> : \n', ' The histories of <unk> , <unk> , Claudius and <unk> , while they were in power , were falsified through terror , and after their death were written under the irritation of a recent hatred . \n', " <unk> was the son of a <unk> , who married into the elite family of <unk> . He entered his political life as a senator after <unk> 's death and , by <unk> ' own admission , owed much to <unk> 's rivals . <unk> that this bias may be apparent to others , <unk> protests that his writing is true . \n", ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' In <unk> <unk> <unk> published in Basel his <unk> <unk> , which was one of the first historical references of the Modern era to portray <unk> in a positive light . \n', '', ' = = <unk> in Jewish and Christian tradition = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Jewish tradition = = = \n', '', ' At the end of 66 , conflict broke out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea . According to the Talmud , <unk> went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions . All the arrows landed in the city . He then asked a passing child to repeat the verse he had learned that day . The child responded , " I will lay my vengeance upon <unk> by the hand of my people Israel " ( <unk> . 25 @,@ 14 ) . <unk> became <unk> , believing that God wanted the Temple in Jerusalem to be destroyed , but would punish the one to carry it out . <unk> said , " He desires to lay waste His House and to lay the blame on me , " whereupon he fled and converted to Judaism to avoid such <unk> . <unk> was then dispatched to put down the rebellion . \n', ' The Talmud adds that the sage <unk> <unk> Baal <unk> , Rabbi <unk> or Rabbi <unk> Baal <unk> ( Rabbi <unk> the miracle maker ) was a Jewish sage who lived in the time of the <unk> a prominent supporter of the Bar <unk> rebellion against Roman rule . He was considered one of the greatest of the <unk> of the third generation ( 139 @-@ 163 ) . According to the Talmud , his father was a descendant of the Roman Emperor <unk> who had converted to Judaism . His wife <unk> is one of the few women cited in the <unk> . He is the third most frequently mentioned sage in the <unk> . \n', " Roman and Greek sources nowhere report <unk> 's alleged trip to Jerusalem or his alleged conversion to Judaism . There is also no record of <unk> having any offspring who survived infancy : his only recorded child , <unk> Augusta , died aged 4 months . \n", '', ' = = = Christian tradition = = = \n', '', ' Non @-@ Christian historian <unk> describes <unk> extensively <unk> and executing Christians after the fire of 64 . <unk> also mentions <unk> punishing Christians , though he does so because they are " given to a new and mischievous superstition " and does not connect it with the fire . \n', ' Christian writer <unk> ( c . 155 – 230 ) was the first to call <unk> the first <unk> of Christians . He wrote , " <unk> your records . There you will find that <unk> was the first that persecuted this doctrine " . <unk> ( c . 240 – 320 ) also said that <unk> " first persecuted the servants of God " . as does <unk> <unk> . However , <unk> writes that , " since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of <unk> , he [ emperor Claudius ] expelled them from Rome " ( " <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> " ) . These expelled " Jews " may have been early Christians , although <unk> is not explicit . Nor is the Bible explicit , calling Aquila of Pontus and his wife , <unk> , both expelled from Italy at the time , " Jews " . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> of Peter and Paul = = = = \n', '', ' The first text to suggest that <unk> ordered the execution of an <unk> is a letter by Clement to the <unk> traditional dated to around 96 <unk> The <unk> Ascension of Isaiah , a Christian writing from the 2nd century says , " the <unk> of his mother , who himself ( even ) this king , will <unk> the plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have planted . Of the Twelve one will be delivered into his hands " was interpreted to mean <unk> . \n', " Bishop Eusebius of Caesarea ( c . 275 – <unk> ) was the first to write explicitly that Paul was beheaded in Rome during the reign of <unk> . He states that <unk> 's persecution led to Peter and Paul 's deaths , but that <unk> did not give any specific orders . However , several other accounts going back to the 1st century have Paul surviving his two years in Rome and travelling to <unk> , before facing trial in Rome again prior to his death . \n", " Peter is first said to have been <unk> upside @-@ down in Rome during <unk> 's reign ( but not by <unk> ) in the <unk> Acts of Peter ( c . 200 ) . The account ends with Paul still alive and <unk> <unk> by God 's command not to <unk> any more Christians . \n", ' By the 4th century , a number of writers were stating that <unk> killed Peter and Paul . \n', '', ' = = = = The <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' The <unk> <unk> , Book 5 and 8 , written in the 2nd century , speak of <unk> returning and bringing destruction . Within Christian communities , these writings , along with others , fueled the belief that <unk> would return as the <unk> . In 310 , <unk> wrote that <unk> " suddenly disappeared , and even the burial place of that <unk> wild beast was nowhere to be seen . This has led some persons of extravagant imagination to suppose that , having been conveyed to a distant region , he is still reserved alive ; and to him they apply the <unk> verses " , <unk> maintains that it is not right to believe this . \n', ' In 422 , Augustine of <unk> wrote about 2 <unk> 2 : 1 – 11 , where he believed Paul mentioned the coming of the <unk> . Though he rejects the theory , Augustine mentions that many Christians believed that <unk> was the <unk> or would return as the <unk> . He wrote , " so that in saying , \' For the mystery of <unk> <unk> already work , \' he alluded to <unk> , whose <unk> already seemed to be as the <unk> of <unk> . " \n', ' Some modern biblical scholars such as <unk> <unk> ( Johns Hopkins University ) of the American Schools of Oriental Research and the editors of the Oxford & Harper Collins Study Bibles , contend that the number <unk> in the Book of Revelation is a code for <unk> , a view that is also supported in Roman Catholic Biblical commentaries . \n', ' The concept of <unk> as the <unk> is often a central belief of <unk> <unk> . \n', '', '', ' = Manila = \n', '', ' Manila ( / <unk> / ) is the capital city of the Philippines , founded on June 24 , <unk> by Spanish <unk> Miguel López de <unk> . It is one of the oldest cities in the country and was the seat of power for most of the colonial rules of the Philippines . It is situated on the eastern shore of Manila Bay and contains a multitude of landmarks , some of which date back to the 16th century , such as the Spanish colonial era <unk> City of <unk> . \n', ' Manila is the second most populous city in the Philippines after the former capital <unk> City with a population of 1 @,@ 780 @,@ 148 in 2015 . Because of its small land area and huge population , Manila is regarded as one of the most densely populated cities in the world with 42 @,@ <unk> people per square kilometer . Manila is one of the sixteen cities and a municipality that make up Metro Manila , the National Capital Region of the Philippines . In 2012 , <unk> and World Cities Research Network listed Manila as a global city . \n', ' Manila has six representative districts for the lower house of the Philippine Congress . Furthermore , the city is composed of 16 districts , namely : <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Port Area , <unk> , <unk> , San Andres , San Miguel , San Nicolas , Santa <unk> , Santa Cruz , Santa Mesa and <unk> . \n', ' The Kingdom of <unk> once ruled in the vicinity of Manila before it briefly became a province of the Hindu <unk> Empire . During the <unk> invasion of the Philippines , Sultan <unk> of <unk> captured <unk> ( a village in modern @-@ day Manila ) and renamed it <unk> , a <unk> term referring to the presence of the <unk> shrub . <unk> was a vassal state of <unk> , established to <unk> <unk> . <unk> had been <unk> since the sixth century CE and earlier . It had become partly Islamic and Hindu @-@ <unk> by the 15th century CE . \n', ' In <unk> Spanish <unk> arrived from Mexico , from across the Pacific , and founded present @-@ day Manila in what today is <unk> . Spanish missionaries soon <unk> the city and incorporated <unk> under Manila and then built some of the oldest churches in the country , including San Agustin Church . The <unk> renamed the area <unk> <unk> de <unk> ( New Kingdom of <unk> ) and shortened the name to Manila . \n', ' Manila became the center of Spanish activity in the Far East and one end of the Manila @-@ Acapulco <unk> trade route , linking Spanish America with Asia , one of the earliest examples of <unk> . Due to the central location in the Pacific sea trade routes , Manila received the moniker of the " Pearl of the <unk> " . Spanish rule of Manila and the entire Philippine archipelago lasted for over three centuries , until 1898 . At different times during the long Spanish period there were local <unk> , Chinese <unk> , massive pirate attacks , great earthquakes , Dutch raids and invasion attempts , and a British occupation of the city during their unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Philippines . Order was usually quickly restored and the city returned to the business of trade . In the 19th century Manila was one of the most modern cities in Asia . Before the Spanish – American War , Manila saw the rise of the Philippine Revolution . Under the American rule following the Spanish – American War , the United States changed the official language from Spanish to English and made some changes in education , local laws and urban planning . Towards the end of World War II , during the Battle of Manila most of the city was flattened by intensive aerial bombardment by the United States Air Force . As a result , relatively little remains of Manila \'s prewar and colonial architecture , although there are ongoing restoration projects , especially within the old walled city , <unk> . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', ' The earliest evidence of human life in and around the area of Manila is the nearby <unk> <unk> dated to around 3000 BC . Furthermore , <unk> , a class of <unk> peoples , became the aboriginal inhabitants of the Philippines . They were found across Luzon before the <unk> @-@ <unk> migrated in and assimilated them . \n', ' The Kingdom of <unk> flourished during the latter half of the Ming Dynasty as a result of direct trade relations with China . <unk> district was maintained as the traditional capital of the empire , with its rulers as sovereign kings and not mere chieftains , and were addressed variously as <unk> <unk> <unk> or <unk> in <unk> ( " lords " ) ; <unk> <unk> ( " son of heaven " ) ; or <unk> ( " lord of the palace " ) , the Emperor of China considered the <unk> ( rulers of ancient Manila ) " <unk> " ( Kings ) . \n', ' In the 13th century , Manila consisted of a fortified settlement and trading quarter at the shores of the <unk> River , on top of previous older towns . Manila was then settled by the <unk> empire of <unk> as referenced in the epic <unk> poem <unk> which inscribed its conquest by <unk> <unk> <unk> . <unk> " <unk> ् <unk> ् " which is a historical name for the city of Manila is listed in <unk> 14 alongside <unk> , which is now <unk> , and <unk> . \n', ' During the reign of Sultan <unk> from <unk> to <unk> , the <unk> Empire invaded , wanting to take advantage of <unk> \'s China trade by attacking its environs and establishing " <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( The Kingdom of <unk> ) . They ruled under and gave yearly tribute to the Sultanate of <unk> as its satellite state . They established a new dynasty under the local leader who accepted Islam and became <unk> <unk> or <unk> <unk> I. He also established a trading challenge to the already rich House of <unk> <unk> in <unk> . Islam was further strengthened by the arrival of Muslim traders from the Arab @-@ Indian area and Southeast Asia . Manila was temporarily besieged by the invasion of Chinese pirate @-@ warlord <unk> ( <unk> ) but was thwarted by the local inhabitants , before it became the seat of the colonial government of Spain . \n', " On June 24 , <unk> , Spanish <unk> Miguel López de <unk> arrived from New Spain ( now Mexico ) , and then exercised rule of the Spanish city of Manila as a territory of New Spain with the establishment of a city council in what today is the district of <unk> . López de <unk> had the local royalty executed or exiled , after the failure of the <unk> <unk> ; a plot wherein an alliance between Japanese merchants , Luzon 's <unk> with several <unk> and <unk> plus the <unk> Empire would band together to execute the Spaniards and their Latin @-@ American mercenaries , and <unk> allies . At the conclusion of which , the victorious Spaniards made Manila the capital of the Spanish East Indies and of the Philippines , which the empire would control for the next three centuries , from <unk> to 1898 . \n", ' Manila then became famous during the Manila @-@ Acapulco <unk> trade which lasted for three centuries and brought goods from Europe , Africa and Latin America across the Pacific Islands to Southeast Asia ( Which was already an <unk> for goods coming from India , Indonesia and China ) and trade also flowed vice versa . Silver that was mined in Mexico and Peru were exchanged for Chinese silk , Indian gems , and the spices of the Southeast Asia , some of which even flowed to Europe . Likewise wines and olives grown from Europe and North Africa were <unk> via Mexico towards Manila . \n', " Manila was occupied by British forces for twenty months , from <unk> to 1764 , and used as a base for an unsuccessful attempt to conquer the Philippines during the Seven Years ' War . Eventually , the British withdrew from Manila as per agreements in the 1763 Treaty of Paris . The Chinese were punished for supporting the British invasion , and the small fortress @-@ city of <unk> , mostly populated by Europeans and <unk> , kept its cannons pointed at <unk> , the world 's oldest <unk> . \n", ' Mexican Independence in 1821 necessitated direct rule from Spain . Under direct Spanish rule , banking , industry and education flourished more than it had in the previous two centuries . The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 facilitated direct trade and communications with Spain . \n', ' The growing wealth and education attracted indigenous , Chinese , Indians , <unk> , and Europeans from the provinces to Manila , all of whom elected a nascent <unk> citizenship regardless of ethnicity . The developments also facilitated the rise of an <unk> class which <unk> liberal ideas , the ideological foundations of the Philippine Revolution which sought independence from Spain . \n', ' After the Battle of Manila ( 1898 ) , Spain ceded the surrendered city of Manila to the United States . The First Philippine Republic based at nearby <unk> fought against the Americans for control of the city of Manila . The Americans defeated the First Philippine Republic and captured president Emilio <unk> who announced allegiance to the United States on April 1 , 1901 . \n', ' Upon drafting a new charter for Manila in June 1901 , the Americans made official what had long been tacit : that the City of Manila was not <unk> alone but also all its <unk> . The new city charter proclaimed that Manila was composed of eleven municipal districts — presumably <unk> , <unk> , Santa Cruz , <unk> , San Miguel , <unk> , Santa <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . In addition to these , the Church recognized five parishes as <unk> — namely , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> @-@ <unk> , Santa Mesa and <unk> . Later times would add two more : <unk> and San Andres <unk> . \n', ' Under American control , a new civilian oriented Insular Government headed by then Governor @-@ General William Howard Taft invited city <unk> Daniel <unk> for the transformation of Manila , to adapt the old city to changed times and modern needs . The <unk> Plan included development of the road system , the use of waterways for transportation , and <unk> of Manila with the improvement of <unk> , construction of parks , <unk> and various building for various activities . \n', " The latter included a government center occupying all of Wallace Field , which extends from <unk> to the present Taft Avenue . The Philippine Capitol was to rise at the Taft Avenue end of the field , facing toward the sea , and would form , with the buildings of different government <unk> and departments , a <unk> , <unk> in the center , and a monument to José <unk> at its <unk> end . Of <unk> 's proposed government center , only three units — the Legislative Building and the building of the Finance and Agricultural departments — were completed when World War II erupted . \n", ' Due to the Japanese occupation of the Philippines , American soldiers were ordered to withdraw from the city and all military installations were removed on December 24 , 1941 . General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open city to prevent further death and destruction ; despite this , the Japanese <unk> continued to bomb the city . Manila was occupied by the Japanese forces on January 2 , 1942 . \n', ' Manila was also the site of the <unk> battle in the Pacific theater during the Second World War . After falling to the Empire of Japan on January 2 , 1942 , it was recaptured by joint American and <unk> troops from February 3 to March 3 , 1945 . Some 100 @,@ 000 civilians were killed in Manila in February 1945 . It was the second most devastated city in the world after Warsaw during the Second World War . At the end of World War II , almost all of the structures in the city , particularly <unk> , were destroyed but after the war , reconstruction took place . \n', " In 1948 , President <unk> <unk> moved the seat of government of the Philippines to <unk> City , a new capital city in the suburbs and fields northeast of Manila , created in 1938 by former President Manuel L. <unk> , which was named after him . The move ended any implementation of the <unk> Plan 's intent for the government centre to be at <unk> . \n", ' With the <unk> @-@ born <unk> <unk> as its first elected mayor in 1952 ( all mayors were appointed prior to this ) , Manila underwent The Golden Age , once again earning its status as the " Pearl of the <unk> " , a moniker it earned before the Second World War . After <unk> \'s term in the 1950s , Manila was led by Antonio <unk> for most of the 1960s . Ramon <unk> ( an Indian @-@ <unk> ) was mayor for nearly the entire 1970s until the 1986 People Power Revolution . <unk> <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> are often collectively considered as the " Big Three of Manila " less for their rather long <unk> as the city \'s chief executive ( continuously for over three decades , from 1952 – 1986 ) , but more for their <unk> contribution to the development and progress of the city and their lasting legacy in <unk> the quality of life and welfare of the people of Manila . \n', " During the administration of President Ferdinand Marcos , the region of the Metro Manila was created as an integrated unit with the enactment of Presidential <unk> No. <unk> on November 7 , 1975 . The area encompassed four cities and thirteen adjoining towns , as a separate regional unit of government . On the <unk> anniversary of the city 's foundation on June 24 , 1976 , Manila was reinstated by Marcos as the capital of the Philippines for its historical significance as the seat of government since the Spanish Period . Presidential <unk> No. 940 states that Manila has always been to the <unk> people and in the eyes of the world , the premier city of the Philippines being the center of trade , commerce , education and culture . \n", ' During the martial law era , Manila became a hot @-@ bed of resistance activity as youth and student demonstrators repeatedly clashed with the police and military which were <unk> to the Marcos regime . After decades of resistance , the non @-@ violent People Power Revolution ( predecessor to the peaceful @-@ <unk> that toppled the iron @-@ curtain in Europe ) , ousted the authoritarian Marcos from power . \n', ' In 1992 , <unk> Lim was elected mayor , the first Chinese @-@ <unk> to hold the office . He was known for his anti @-@ crime <unk> . Lim was succeeded by <unk> <unk> , who served as his vice @-@ mayor . <unk> was known for his campaign ( and city slogan ) " <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( <unk> Manila ) , which saw the establishment of several parks and the repair and rehabilitation of the city \'s deteriorating facilities . He was the city \'s mayor for 3 terms ( 9 years ) before being termed out of office . \n', " <unk> Lim once again ran for mayor and defeated <unk> 's son Ali in the 2007 city election and immediately reversed all of <unk> 's projects claiming <unk> 's projects made little contribution to the improvements of the city . The relationship of both parties turned bitter , with the two <unk> again during the 2010 city elections in which Lim won against <unk> . \n", ' Lim was sued by <unk> Dennis <unk> on 2008 over human rights , charged with <unk> over the rehabilitation of public schools , and was heavily criticized for his <unk> resolution of the <unk> Park hostage taking incident , one of the deadliest hostage crisis in the Philippines . Later on , Vice Mayor <unk> <unk> and 28 city <unk> filed another case against Lim in 2012 , stating that Lim \'s statement in a meeting were " life @-@ threatening " to them . On the 2013 elections , former President Joseph <unk> defeated Lim in the mayoral race . During his term , <unk> has paid the city \'s over <unk> 5 billion debts , increase revenues by 2 @.@ 35 times from <unk> 6 @.@ 2 billion in 2012 to <unk> 14 @.@ 6 billion by 2016 , spent from 2013 to 2016 an unprecedented <unk> 6 @.@ 76 billion for the city \'s infrastructure , built and or renovated seven city public markets , built 22 schools , increased teachers \' <unk> , modernized the six city hospitals and bought <unk> machines and magnetic resonance imaging <unk> , increased the efficiency of the police force and reduced crime . Manila has become the most competitive city in the Philippines by 2015 , making the city the best place for doing business and for living in . \n', ' Despite his achievements and unprecedented feat as the Mayor of Manila , however , <unk> was re @-@ elected as Manila mayor in the 2016 election against Lim and <unk> <unk> , only winning by an <unk> 2 @,@ 830 votes . \n', '', ' = = Geography = = \n', '', ' Manila is located on the eastern shores of Manila bay , which rests on the western shores of Luzon . Manila lies 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 kilometers ) from mainland Asia . The <unk> River <unk> Manila . \n', " Almost all of Manila sits on top of centuries of prehistoric alluvial deposits built by the waters of the <unk> and on some land reclaimed from Manila Bay . Manila 's land has been altered substantially by human intervention , with considerable land <unk> along the <unk> since the American colonial times . Some of the natural variations in topography have been <unk> out due to the <unk> of the city . As of 2013 , Manila has a total area of 42 @.@ 88 square kilometres ( 16 @.@ 56 sq mi ) . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' Manila sits <unk> the Pacific typhoon belt and is <unk> @-@ crossed by several fault lines . This led to Manila and its metropolitan region to be ranked as the second <unk> capital ( city ) to live in according to Swiss Re . The <unk> active <unk> Valley <unk> System poses a threat to Manila and the surrounding regions . \n', ' Manila has endured several deadly earthquakes , notably in 1645 and in 1677 which destroyed the stone and brick medieval city . The Earthquake Baroque style was used by the Colonial architects during the Spanish colonial period in order to adapt to the frequent earthquakes . \n', '', ' = = = Climate = = = \n', '', ' Under the Köppen climate classification system , Manila features a tropical <unk> climate ( Köppen climate classification <unk> ) . Together with the rest of the Philippines , Manila lies entirely within the <unk> . Its proximity to the equator means that the temperature range is very small , rarely going below 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) or above 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) . <unk> extremes have ranged from 14 @.@ 5 ° C ( 58 @.@ 1 ° F ) on January 11 , 1914 to 38 @.@ 6 ° C ( 101 @.@ 5 ° F ) on May 7 , 1915 . \n', ' <unk> levels are usually very high all year round . Manila has a distinct dry season from December through May , and a relatively lengthy wet season that covers the remaining period with slightly cooler temperatures . In the rainy season it rarely rains all day but the rainfall is very heavy during short periods . <unk> usually occur from June to September . \n', '', ' = = = Environment = = = \n', '', " Due to industrial waste and automobiles , Manila suffers from air pollution , affecting 98 % of the population . <unk> , the air pollution causes more than 4 @,@ 000 deaths . <unk> is Manila 's most air polluted district due to open dump sites and industrial waste . According to a report in 2003 , The <unk> River is one of the most polluted rivers in the world with 150 tons of domestic waste and 75 tons of industrial waste dumped daily . \n", ' <unk> , Manila is hit with 6 to 7 <unk> creating floods . In 2009 , Typhoon <unk> struck Philippines . In the aftermath of Typhoon <unk> , the lack of infrastructure led to one of the worst <unk> in the Philippines and creating a significant amount of pollution . Following the aftermath of Typhoon <unk> , the city began to dredge its rivers and improve its drainage network . The <unk> River <unk> Commission is in charge of cleaning up the <unk> River and tributaries for transportation , recreation and tourism purposes . <unk> efforts have resulted in the creation of parks along the riverside , along with <unk> pollution controls . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Architecture = = = \n', '', ' Manila has <unk> significant buildings in a wide range of styles spanning distinct historical and cultural periods . Architectural styles reflect American , Spanish , Chinese , and Malay influences . <unk> <unk> architects such as Antonio Toledo , Felipe Roxas , Juan M. <unk> and Tomás <unk> have designed significant buildings in Manila such as churches , government offices , theaters , mansions , schools and universities . \n', ' Manila is known for its distinct Art Deco theaters which are designed by National Artists such as Juan <unk> and Pablo Antonio . The historic <unk> Street in <unk> features many buildings of neo @-@ classical and <unk> @-@ arts architectural style , many of which were designed by prominent <unk> architects during the American Rule in the 1920s to the late 1930s . Many architects , artists , historians and heritage advocacy groups are pushing for the revival of <unk> Street , which was once the premier street of the Philippines . \n', " Unfortunately , much of Manila 's prewar and Spanish colonial architecture was destroyed during World War II . Reconstruction took place afterwards , replacing the destroyed historic Spanish @-@ era buildings with modern ones , <unk> much of the city 's character . Some buildings destroyed by the war have been reconstructed , such as the Old Legislative Building ( National Museum ) , <unk> de Manila ( Bureau of the Treasury ) and the currently under construction San <unk> Church ( <unk> de <unk> ) . Plans have been laid out to <unk> several neglected historic buildings and places such as Plaza Del Carmen , San Sebastian Church and the Manila Metropolitan Theater and soon Spanish @-@ era shops and houses in <unk> , <unk> , and San Nicolas will be restored to its former <unk> , as a part of a movement to restore Manila to its former glory . \n", " Since Manila is prone to earthquakes , the Spanish colonial architects invented the style called Earthquake Baroque which the churches and government buildings during the Spanish colonial period adopted . As a result , succeeding earthquakes of the 18th and 19th centuries barely affected Manila , although it did periodically level the surrounding area . Modern buildings in and around Manila are designed or have <unk> to withstand an 8 @.@ 2 magnitude quake in accordance to the country 's building code . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> and districts = = = \n', '', ' Manila is composed of fourteen districts according to Republic Act No. <unk> , otherwise known as the <unk> Charter of the City of Manila . Two were later added , which are Santa Mesa ( partitioned off from <unk> ) and San Andres ( partitioned off from Santa <unk> ) . \n', ' The city has <unk> <unk> that are known by <unk> numbers instead of names . These <unk> are further group into 100 zones for administrative and municipal purposes . \n', '', ' = = = Military and national security = = = \n', '', ' The headquarters of the Philippine Coast Guard is located at the South Harbor in Port Area near <unk> and <unk> . The Philippine Navy on the other hand has its headquarters in Naval Station Jose <unk> located along Roxas Boulevard in <unk> . Furthermore , the <unk> Joint Task Force @-@ National Capital Region was created in 2012 to ensure peace and stability in Metro Manila , of which Manila is a part . It bears the same functions of the deactivated National Capital Regional Command , although it operates on a much smaller size than its predecessor . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' There are an estimated 4 million <unk> dwellers living in Manila as of 2014 . \n', '', ' = = Demographics = = \n', '', ' According to the 2015 census , the population of the city was 1 @,@ 780 @,@ 148 , making it the second most populous city in the Philippines . \n', ' Manila is the most densely populated city in the world with 43 @,@ <unk> inhabitants per km2 . District 6 is listed as being the most dense with 68 @,@ 266 inhabitants per km2 , followed by District 1 with 64 @,@ <unk> and District 2 with 64 @,@ 710 , respectively . District 5 is the least densely populated area with 19 @,@ 235 . \n', " Manila 's population density dwarfs that of Kolkata ( 27 @,@ <unk> inhabitants per km2 ) , Mumbai ( 22 @,@ <unk> inhabitants per km2 ) , Paris ( 20 @,@ 164 inhabitants per km2 ) , <unk> ( 19 @,@ <unk> inhabitants per km2 ) , Shanghai ( 16 @,@ 364 inhabitants per km2 , with its most dense district , <unk> , having a density of 56 @,@ <unk> inhabitants per km2 ) , and Tokyo ( 10 @,@ <unk> inhabitants per km2 ) . \n", ' The vernacular language is <unk> , based mostly on the <unk> of surrounding areas , and this Manila form of speaking <unk> has essentially become the <unk> <unk> of the Philippines , having spread throughout the archipelago through mass media and entertainment . Meanwhile , English is the language most widely used in education , business , and heavily in everyday usage throughout the Metro Manila region and the Philippines itself . \n', " A number of older residents can still speak basic Spanish , which used to be a mandatory subject in the curriculum of Philippine universities and colleges , and many children of Japanese <unk> , Indian <unk> , and other migrants or expatriates also speak their parents ' languages at home , aside from English and / or <unk> for everyday use . <unk> Chinese ( known as <unk> @-@ <unk> ) is spoken by the city 's Chinese @-@ <unk> community . \n", '', ' = = Economy = = \n', '', ' The city is a major center for commerce , banking and finance , <unk> , transportation , tourism , real estate , new media as well as traditional media , advertising , legal services , <unk> , insurance , theater , fashion , and the arts in the Philippines . \n', " The Cities and <unk> <unk> Index , published by the National <unk> Council of the Philippines , ranks the cities , municipalities and provinces of the country according to their economic <unk> , government efficiency and infrastructure . Manila placed third in the <unk> <unk> City ( <unk> ) category . Previously , Manila was the country 's most competitive city in 2015 , making it the best place to live in and do business . \n", ' The Port of Manila is the largest seaport in the Philippines , making it the premier international shipping gateway to the country . The Philippine Ports Authority is government agency responsible to oversee the operation and management of the ports . The International <unk> Terminal Services Inc. cited by the Asian Development Bank as one of the top five major maritime terminal operators in the world has its headquarters and main operations on the ports of Manila . Another port operator , the Asian Terminal Incorporated , has its corporate office and main operations in the Manila South Harbor and its container <unk> located in Santa Mesa . \n', ' <unk> , the oldest and one of the largest <unk> in the world , was the center of commerce and business activities in the city . Numerous residential and office <unk> are found within its medieval streets . Plans to make the <unk> area into a business process <unk> ( <unk> ) hub progresses and is aggressively pursued by the city government of Manila . 30 buildings are already identified to be converted into <unk> offices . These buildings are mostly located along the <unk> Street of <unk> , which are all unoccupied and can be converted into offices . \n', ' <unk> in <unk> is dubbed as the " shopping <unk> of the Philippines " . Numerous shopping malls are located in this place , which sells products and goods at <unk> price . Small <unk> occupies several roads that causes pedestrian and <unk> traffic . A famous landmark in <unk> is the <unk> Center , a large shopping mall that is a part of the Philippine National Railways \' Main Station . It attracts 1 million people every month , but is expected to add another 400 @,@ 000 people when the <unk> @-@ 2 West <unk> is constructed , making it Manila \'s busiest transfer station . \n', ' <unk> manufacturers within the city produce industrial @-@ related products such as chemicals , textiles , clothing , and electronic goods . Food and <unk> and tobacco products also produced . Local entrepreneurs continue to process primary commodities for export , including rope , <unk> , refined sugar , <unk> , and <unk> oil . The food @-@ processing industry is one of the most stable major manufacturing sector in the city . \n', " The <unk> Oil Depot houses the storage facilities and distribution terminals of the three major players in the country 's petroleum industry , namely <unk> Philippines , <unk> Shell and <unk> Corporation . The oil depot has been a subject of various concerns , including its environmental and health impact to the residents of Manila . The Supreme Court has ordered that the oil depot to be relocated outside the city by July 2015 , but it failed to meet this deadline . It is currently being demolished which is expected to be finished before the year 2016 ends , and plans have been set up to turn this 33 hectare facility into a transport hub or even a food park . \n", " Manila is a major publishing center in the Philippines . Manila Bulletin , the Philippines ' largest <unk> newspaper by circulation , is headquartered inside <unk> . Other major publishing companies in the country like The Manila Times , The Philippine Star and Manila Standard Today are headquartered inside the Port Area . The Chinese Commercial News , the Philippines ' oldest existing Chinese @-@ language newspaper , and the country 's third @-@ oldest existing newspaper is headquartered in <unk> . \n", ' Manila serves as the headquarters of the Central Bank of the Philippines which is located along Roxas Boulevard . Some universal banks in the Philippines that has its headquarters in the city are the <unk> of the Philippines and Philippine Trust Company . <unk> Life Insurance Company , currently the largest life insurance company in the Philippines in terms of assets , net worth , investment and paid @-@ up capital , has its headquarters along United Nations Avenue in <unk> . <unk> Philippines has its corporate office along United Nations Avenue in <unk> . Toyota , a company listed in the Forbes Global 2000 also has its regional office along UN Avenue . \n', '', ' = = = Tourism = = = \n', '', ' Tourism is a vital industry in Manila , and it <unk> approximately over 1 million tourists each year . Major destinations include the walled city of <unk> , the National Theater at the Cultural Center of the Philippines , Manila Ocean Park , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Manila Zoo , National Museum of the Philippines and <unk> Park . \n', " <unk> Park , also known as <unk> Park , is the national park of the country and has an area of 58 hectares ( 140 acres ) , making it the largest urban park in Asia . In the Tourism Act of 2009 , <unk> Park along with <unk> are designated as flagship destination to become a tourism enterprise zone . A new attraction called <unk> de Manila is expected to rise in the park . The park was constructed as an honor and dedication to the country 's national hero José <unk> , who was executed by the Spaniards on charges of subversion . The flagpole west of the <unk> Monument is the <unk> Zero marker for distances to the rest of the country . \n", ' <unk> is the historic center of Manila . Originally , it was considered to be Manila itself at the time when the Philippines was under the Spanish Empire colonial rule . Owing to its history and cultural value , <unk> and <unk> Park are designated as flagship destination to become a tourism enterprise zone in the Tourism Act of 2009 . <unk> is managed by the <unk> Administration ( <unk> ) . \n', ' The architecture of <unk> reflects the Spanish colonial style and the American neoclassical architectural style , since the Philippines was a colony of Spain and the United States before it is granted its independence in 1946 . <unk> is a popular mode of transportation in <unk> and nearby places such as <unk> , <unk> and the <unk> Park . \n', ' Popular tourist destinations in <unk> include the <unk> de San Diego , Club <unk> Golf Course , <unk> de Santa Lucia , Fort Santiago , Manila Cathedral , <unk> <unk> , <unk> de Santa <unk> , <unk> del <unk> , Plaza Mexico , Plaza de <unk> , San Agustin Church and the <unk> de Manila . \n', ' Some of the country \'s oldest schools are founded in <unk> , these are the University of Santo Tomas ( 1611 ) , <unk> de San Juan de <unk> ( 1620 ) , and <unk> de Manila University ( 1859 ) . Only <unk> de San Juan de <unk> remains at <unk> ; the University of Santo Tomas transferred to a new campus at <unk> in 1927 , and <unk> left <unk> for Loyola Heights , <unk> City ( while still retaining " de Manila " in its name ) in 1952 . Other prominent educational institutions include the Manila High School and the University of the City of Manila . \n', ' The Department of Tourism <unk> Manila as the pioneer of medical tourism , expecting it to generate $ 1 billion in revenue annually . However , lack of progressive health system , inadequate infrastructure and the unstable political environment are seen as <unk> for its growth . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> centers = = = \n', '', ' Manila is a well @-@ known shopping hub of the country and it has been named as one of the best shopping destinations in Asia . Major shopping malls , markets and <unk> <unk> in Manila . \n', ' <unk> Place Manila is the largest shopping mall in the city . The mall was the second and by @-@ far , the largest Robinson Mall ever built by John <unk> . SM <unk> maintains presence in the city . One of their shopping mall is the SM City Manila , the first SM <unk> in the city featuring major SM brands like The SM Store , SM <unk> , SM <unk> and SM <unk> . It is located right beside the Manila City Hall . SM City San <unk> is the second SM <unk> in Manila . It is located in Santa Cruz . SM City San <unk> was constructed on the site of the former San <unk> <unk> . The building of the former Manila Royal Hotel in <unk> which is famed for its revolving restaurant atop is now the SM <unk> Center which was established in 1972 . The site of the first SM Store is located at Carlos <unk> Sr. ( formerly <unk> ) Street in San Miguel . \n', ' <unk> is referred as the " Old Downtown " where <unk> , markets , <unk> shops , music and electronics stores are common . <unk> <unk> Avenue is where lots of department stores are located . One of <unk> Avenue \'s famous destination is <unk> , home to numerous shopping malls in the city . It is also dubbed as the shopping <unk> of the Philippines where everything is sold at <unk> price . <unk> , the oldest <unk> in the world , is the city \'s center of commerce and trade for all types of businesses run by <unk> @-@ Chinese merchants with a wide variety of Chinese and <unk> shops and restaurants . \n', '', ' = = Arts , culture and religion = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Religion = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = Christianity = = = = \n', '', " As a result of Spanish cultural influence , Manila is a predominantly Christian ( Catholic ) city . As of 2010 , Roman Catholics comprises 83 @.@ 5 % of the population , followed by adherents of the Philippine Independent Church ( 2 @.@ 4 % ) ; <unk> <unk> <unk> ( 1 @.@ 9 % ) ; various Protestant churches ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) ; and Buddhists ( 1 @.@ 1 % ) . Members of Islam and other religions comprises the remaining 10 @.@ 4 % of the city 's population . \n", ' Manila is the site of prominent Catholic churches and institutions . The Manila Cathedral is the seat of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila and the oldest established church in the country . Aside from the Manila Cathedral , there are also three other <unk> in the city : <unk> Church , <unk> Church , and the Minor Basilica of San <unk> . The San Agustín Church in <unk> is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the two fully air @-@ conditioned Catholic churches in the city . Manila also has other parishes located throughout the city , with some of them dating back to the Spanish Colonial Period when the city serves as the base for numerous Catholic missions both within the Philippines and to Asia beyond . \n', " Several <unk> Protestant denominations are headquartered in the city . St. Stephen 's Parish pro @-@ cathedral in the <unk> . Cruz district is the see of the Episcopal Church in the Philippines ' Diocese of Central Philippines , while align Taft Avenue are the main cathedral and central offices of the <unk> <unk> <unk> ( also called the <unk> Church , a national church that was a product of the Philippine Revolution ) . Other faiths like The Church of Jesus Christ of <unk> @-@ day Saints maintains a presence in the city . \n", ' The indigenous <unk> <unk> <unk> has several <unk> ( akin to parishes ) in the city , including its very first chapel ( now a museum ) in Punta , <unk> . <unk> . <unk> , <unk> and Seventh @-@ day <unk> denominations also <unk> within the city . The headquarters of the Philippine Bible Society is in Manila . Also , the main campus of the Cathedral of <unk> is located along Taft Avenue . Jesus Is Lord Church also has several branches and campuses in Manila , and celebrates its anniversary yearly at the <unk> Green and <unk> <unk> in <unk> Park . \n', '', ' = = = = Other faiths = = = = \n', '', " The city also hosts other religions . There are many Buddhist and Taoist temples serving the Chinese <unk> community . <unk> is home to a sizable Muslim population which <unk> at <unk> Al @-@ <unk> . Members of the Indian expatriate population have the option of worshiping at the large Hindu temple in the city , or at the Sikh <unk> along United Nations Avenue . The National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá <unk> of the Philippines , the governing body of the <unk> Bahá 'í community , is headquartered near Manila 's eastern border with <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = Annual cultural events and religious festivities = = = \n', '', " Manila celebrates civic and national holidays . Manila Day , which celebrates the city 's founding on June 24 , <unk> , was first proclaimed by <unk> A. <unk> ( then Vice Mayor of Manila ) on June 24 , 1962 and has been annually commemorated , under the patronage of John the Baptist . <unk> , each of the city 's <unk> also have their own festivities guided by their own patron saint . The city is also the host to the Feast of the Black <unk> , held every January 9 , which draws millions of Catholic devotees . Another religious <unk> held in Manila was the Feast of the Nuestra Señora de los <unk> de Manila ( Our Lady of the <unk> ) , the patron saint of Santa <unk> and was held every May 12 . Non @-@ religious holidays include the New Year 's Day , National Heroes ' Day , <unk> Day and <unk> Day . \n", '', ' = = = Museums and art galleries = = = \n', '', ' As the cultural center of the Philippines , Manila is the home to a number of museums . The National Museum of the Philippines Complex , which include the National Museum of Fine Arts , Museum of Anthropology and the Museum of Natural History , is located on the northeast part of <unk> Park facing Taft <unk> proposed national government center during the American time . Museums established by educational institutions include the <unk> Shrine , the Museum of Contemporary Art and Design , <unk> Museum of Arts and Sciences , and the UP Museum of a History of <unk> . \n', " <unk> <unk> , one of Manila 's most prominent museums , documents the Chinese lives and contributions in the history of the Philippines . The <unk> Light and Sound Museum chronicles the <unk> desire for freedom during the revolution under <unk> 's leadership and other revolutionary leaders . The Metropolitan Museum of Manila exhibits the <unk> arts and culture . \n", " Other museums in the city are the Museum of Manila , the city @-@ owned museum that exhibits the city 's culture and history , <unk> <unk> , a children 's museum , the Museum of Philippine Political History , which exhibits notable political events in the country , the Parish of the Our Lady of the <unk> and the San Agustin Church Museum , which houses religious artifacts , and Plaza San Luis , a public museum . \n", '', ' = = Sports = = \n', '', " Sports in Manila have a long and distinguished history . The city 's , and in general the country 's main sport is basketball , and most <unk> have a makeshift basketball court , with court markings drawn on the streets . Larger <unk> have covered courts where <unk> leagues are held every summer ( April to May ) . \n", ' The city has several well @-@ known sports venues , such as the <unk> Memorial Sports Complex and San Andres <unk> , the home of the now defunct Manila <unk> . The <unk> Memorial Sports Complex houses the <unk> Memorial Track and Football Stadium , the Baseball Stadium , Tennis Courts , Memorial Coliseum and the <unk> <unk> Stadium ( the latter two are indoor arenas ) . \n', " The <unk> complex had hosted several multi @-@ sport events , such as the 1954 Asian Games and the 1934 Far Eastern Games . Whenever the country hosts the Southeast Asian Games , most of the events are held at the complex , but in the 2005 Games , most events were held elsewhere . The 1960 ABC Championship and the 1973 ABC Championship , <unk> of the FIBA Asia Championship , was hosted by the complex , with the national basketball team winning on both tournaments . The 1978 FIBA World Championship was held at the complex although the latter stages were held in the <unk> Coliseum in <unk> City , Southeast Asia 's largest indoor arena at that time . \n", " Manila also hosts several well @-@ known sports facilities such as the Enrique M. <unk> Sports Center and the University of Santo Tomas Sports Complex , both of which are private venues owned by a university ; collegiate sports are also held , with the University Athletic Association of the Philippines and the National Collegiate Athletic Association basketball games held at <unk> Memorial Coliseum and <unk> <unk> Stadium , although basketball events had transferred to San Juan 's <unk> Flying V Arena and the <unk> Coliseum in <unk> City . Other collegiate sports are still held at the <unk> Memorial Sports Complex . Professional basketball also used to play at the city , but the Philippine Basketball Association now holds their games at <unk> Coliseum and <unk> <unk> at <unk> ; the now defunct Philippine Basketball League played some of their games at the <unk> Memorial Sports Complex . \n", " The Manila Storm are the city 's rugby league team training at <unk> Park ( <unk> Park ) and playing their matches at Southern Plains Field , <unk> , <unk> . \n", ' Previously a widely played sport in the city , Manila is now the home of the only sizable baseball stadium in the country , at the <unk> Memorial Baseball Stadium . The stadium hosts games of Baseball Philippines ; Lou Gehrig and Babe Ruth were the first players to score a home run at the stadium at their tour of the country on December 2 , 1934 . \n', ' Another popular sport in the city are cue sports , and <unk> halls are a feature in most <unk> . The 2010 World Cup of Pool was held at <unk> Place Manila . \n', ' The <unk> Memorial Track and Football Stadium hosted the first FIFA World Cup <unk> in decades when the Philippines hosted Sri Lanka in July 2011 . The stadium , which was previously unfit for international matches , had undergone a major renovation program prior to the match . The Football Stadium now regularly hosts matches of the United Football League . The stadium also hosted its first rugby test when it hosted the 2012 Asian Five Nations Division I tournaments . \n', '', ' = = Government and politics = = \n', '', ' The government of Manila is divided into three branches : executive , legislative and judiciary . The judicial branch is administered solely by the Supreme Court of the Philippines under the Metro Manila judicial region . The city government have control of the executive and legislative branch . Manila employs 11 @,@ <unk> personnel at the end of 2014 . \n', " The current Mayor of Manila is Joseph <unk> , who served as the President of the Philippines from 1998 @-@ 2001 . He is also the head of the executive department of the city . The legislative arm which is composed of six elected city <unk> , is headed by the Vice Mayor . Former actor <unk> <unk> currently serves as the city 's vice mayor . <unk> they are assisted by the Manila City Council , the local President of the Association of <unk> Captains , and the President of the <unk> <unk> . Their offices are located at the Manila City Hall . \n", '', ' = = = Finance = = = \n', '', " On September 25 , 2014 , the Commission on <unk> released its 2013 Annual Financial Report citing the city 's income at <unk> 10 @.@ 1 billion with an asset worth of <unk> 18 @.@ 6 billion . Its local income stood at <unk> 5 @.@ 41 billion and its national government allocation was <unk> 1 @.@ 74 billion , having an annual regular income ( <unk> ) of an estimated <unk> 7 @.@ 15 billion . Manila 's net income stood at <unk> 3 @.@ 54 billion in 2014 . \n", " Among the local government units , Manila has the highest budget allocation to health . It was also one of the cities with the highest tax and internal revenue . Tax revenue accounts for 46 % of the city 's income in 2012 . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> and <unk> = = = \n', '', " Manila has six legislative districts that serve as the constituencies for the election of the city 's representatives to the lower house of the Congress of the Philippines and of the regular members to the <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ; City Council ) . Each district elects one representative to the House of Representatives and six <unk> members to the council . The city , along with the rest of the nation , elects 12 <unk> as one at @-@ large district . \n", ' Manila is politically divided into <unk> <unk> , the smallest unit of local government in the Philippines . Each <unk> has its own <unk> and <unk> . For administrative convenience , all the <unk> in Manila are grouped into 100 zones . These zones have no form of local government . \n', " The 1st District ( 2015 population : 415 @,@ <unk> ) is Manila 's ( and the country 's ) most densely populated congressional district . It covers the western portion of <unk> that lies along Manila Bay . \n", ' The 2nd District ( 2015 population : 215 @,@ 457 ) covers the eastern inland portion of <unk> , a neighborhood or sub @-@ district known as <unk> . \n', ' The 3rd District ( 2015 population : 197 @,@ 242 ) covers <unk> , <unk> , San Nicolas and Santa Cruz . \n', ' The 4th District ( 2015 population : 265 @,@ <unk> ) covers <unk> . \n', ' The 5th District ( 2015 population : 366 @,@ <unk> ) covers <unk> , <unk> , Port Area , <unk> , San Andres <unk> , and a portion of <unk> ( except Zone 90 ) . \n', ' The 6th District ( 2007 population : 295 @,@ 245 ) covers <unk> ( Zone 90 only ) , <unk> , San Miguel , Santa <unk> and Santa Mesa . \n', ' Manila has the most number of <unk> of any city or municipality in the Philippines . Attempts at reducing its number have not prospered despite local legislation — <unk> <unk> , passed on 23 April 1996 — reducing the number from <unk> to 150 by merging existing <unk> , because of the failure to hold a <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = National government = = = \n', '', ' Manila , being the seat of political power of the Philippines , has several national government offices headquartered at the city . Planning for the development for being the center of government started during the early years of American colonization to the country when they envisioned a well @-@ designed city outside the walls of <unk> . The strategic location chosen was <unk> , a former town which is now the <unk> Park to become the center of government and a design commission was given to Daniel <unk> to create a master plan for the city patterned after Washington <unk> .. These improvements were eventually abandoned under the Commonwealth Government of Manuel L. <unk> . \n', ' A new government center was to be built on the hills northeast of Manila , or what is now <unk> City . Several government agencies have set up their headquarters in <unk> City but several key government offices still reside in Manila . However , many of the plans were substantially altered after the devastation of Manila during World War II and by subsequent administrations . \n', " The city , as the capital , still hosts the Office of the President , as well as the president 's official residence . Aside from these , important institutions such as the Supreme Court , the Court of Appeals , the <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , the <unk> of <unk> and Management , Finance , Health , Justice , Labor and <unk> and Public Works and Highways still call the city home . Manila also hosts important national institutions such as the National Library , National Archives , National Museum and the Philippine General Hospital . \n", ' Congress previously held office at the Old Congress Building . In 1972 , due to declaration of martial law , Congress was dissolved ; its successor , the unicameral <unk> <unk> , held office at the new <unk> <unk> Complex . When a new constitution restored the <unk> Congress , the House of Representatives stayed at the <unk> <unk> Complex , while the Senate remained at the Old Congress Building . In May 1997 , the Senate transferred to a new building it shares with the Government Service Insurance System at reclaimed land at <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Infrastructure = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Utilities = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = Water and electricity = = = = \n', '', ' Water services used to be provided by the Metropolitan <unk> and <unk> System , which served 30 % of the city with most other sewage being directly dumped into storm drains , <unk> tanks , or open canals . <unk> was <unk> in 1997 which split the water concession into the east and west zones . The <unk> Water Services took over the west zone of which Manila is a part . It now provides the supply and delivery of <unk> water and <unk> system in Manila , but it does not provide service to the southeastern part of the city which belongs to the east zone that is served by Manila Water . Electric services are provided by <unk> , the sole electric power distributor in Metro Manila . \n', '', ' = = = Transportation = = = \n', '', ' One of the more famous modes of transportation in Manila is the <unk> . <unk> after U.S. army <unk> , these have been in use since the years immediately following World War II . The <unk> <unk> , the third generation Toyota <unk> , which competed directly with <unk> and followed fixed routes for a set price , once plied the streets of Manila . \n', ' On a for @-@ hire basis , the city is served by numerous <unk> , " <unk> " ( <unk> with <unk> , the Philippine version of the auto <unk> ) , and " <unk> " or " <unk> " ( <unk> with a <unk> , the Philippine version of <unk> ) . In some areas , especially in <unk> , <unk> <unk> are popular . Spanish @-@ era horse @-@ drawn <unk> are still a popular tourist attraction and mode of transportation in the streets of <unk> and <unk> . All types of public road transport are privately owned and operated under government franchise . \n', ' The city is serviced by the <unk> @-@ 1 and <unk> @-@ 2 which forms the <unk> system , as distinct from the <unk> @-@ 3 which is under the <unk> system that services other parts of Metro Manila . Development of the railway system began in the 1970s under the Marcos administration , making it the first light rail transport in Southeast Asia . These systems are currently undergoing a multibillion @-@ dollar expansion . <unk> Line 1 runs along the length of Taft Avenue ( R @-@ 2 ) and <unk> Avenue ( R @-@ 9 ) , and the <unk> Line 2 runs along <unk> M. <unk> Avenue ( C @-@ 1 ) and Ramon <unk> Boulevard ( R @-@ 6 ) from Santa Cruz , through <unk> City , up to <unk> in <unk> . \n', ' The main terminal of the Philippine National Railways lies within the city . One commuter railway within Metro Manila is in operation . The line runs in a general north @-@ south direction from <unk> ( <unk> ) toward <unk> . The Port of Manila , located in the vicinity of Manila Bay is the chief seaport of the Philippines . The <unk> River Ferry Service which runs on the <unk> River is another form of transportation . The city is also served by the <unk> <unk> International Airport and Clark International Airport . \n', ' In 2006 , Forbes magazine ranked Manila " the world \'s most <unk> city " . Manila has become notorious for its frequent traffic jams and high densities . The government has undertaken several projects to alleviate the traffic in the city . Some of the projects include : the construction of a new flyover at <unk> , the construction of the Metro Manila <unk> Stage 3 , the proposed <unk> Line 2 ( west ) extension from <unk> to <unk> or the Port Area , and the expansion of several national and local roads . However , such projects have yet to make any meaningful impact , and the traffic jams and congestion continue unabated . The urban planning of the Manila and the whole metropolis was based on the Metro Manila Dream Plan , which seeks to address the problems of Metro Manila \'s urban planning and transportation . It consists of a list of short term priority projects and medium to long term infrastructure projects that will last up to <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Healthcare = = \n', '', ' The Manila Health Department is responsible for the planning and implementation of the health care programs provided by the city government . It operates 59 health centers and six city @-@ run hospitals , which are free of charge . The six public city @-@ run hospitals are the <unk> <unk> <unk> Medical Center , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> Andres <unk> Memorial Medical Center , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> . <unk> Hospital , and Justice Jose <unk> Santos General Hospital . Manila is also the site of the Philippine General Hospital , the tertiary state @-@ owned hospital administered and operated by the University of the Philippines Manila . \n', " Manila 's healthcare is also provided by private corporations . Private hospitals that operates in the city are the Manila Doctors Hospital , Chinese General Hospital and Medical Center , Dr. José R. Reyes Memorial Medical Center , Metropolitan Medical Center , Our Lady of Lourdes Hospital , and the University of Santo Tomas Hospital . \n", ' The Department of Health has its main office in Manila . The national health department also operates the San <unk> Hospital , a special referral tertiary hospital . Manila is also the home to the headquarters of the World Health Organization Regional Office for the Western Pacific and the World Health Organization Country Office for the Philippines . \n', '', ' = = Education = = \n', '', ' The center of education since the colonial period , Manila — particularly <unk> — is home to several Philippine universities and colleges as well as its oldest ones . It served as the home of the University of Santo Tomas ( 1611 ) , <unk> de San Juan de <unk> ( 1620 ) , <unk> de Manila University ( 1859 ) , Lyceum of the Philippines University and the <unk> Institute of Technology . Only <unk> de San Juan de <unk> ( 1620 ) remains at <unk> ; the University of Santo Tomas transferred to a new campus at <unk> in 1927 , and <unk> left <unk> for Loyola Heights , <unk> City ( while still retaining " de Manila " in its name ) in 1952 . \n', ' The University of the City of Manila ( <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ) located at <unk> , and <unk> de Manila located just outside the walled city , are both owned and operated by the Manila city government . The national government controls the University of the Philippines Manila , the oldest of the University of the Philippines constituent universities and the center of health sciences education in the country . The city is also the site of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines , the largest university in the country in terms of student population . \n', ' The University Belt refers to the area where there is a high concentration or a cluster of colleges and universities in the city and it is commonly understood as the one where the San Miguel , <unk> and <unk> districts meet . Generally , it includes the western end of <unk> Boulevard , <unk> Reyes St. ( formerly <unk> St. ) , the eastern end of <unk> M. <unk> Avenue ( formerly <unk> ) , <unk> Avenue , <unk> Street , and the different side streets . Each of the colleges and universities found here are at a short walking distance of each other . Another cluster of colleges lies along the southern bank of the <unk> River , mostly at the <unk> and <unk> districts , and still a smaller cluster is found at the southernmost part of <unk> near the border with <unk> such as the private co @-@ educational institution of De La Salle University , the largest of all De La Salle University System of schools . \n', " The Division of the City Schools of Manila , a branch of the Department of Education , refers to the city 's three @-@ tier public education system . It governs the 71 public elementary schools , 32 public high schools . \n", " The city also contains the Manila Science High School , the pilot science high school of the Philippines ; the National Museum , where the <unk> of Juan <unk> is housed ; the Metropolitan Museum of Manila , a museum of modern and contemporary visual arts ; the <unk> <unk> , the Children 's Museum , a place of hands @-@ on discovery and fun learning ; and , the National Library , the <unk> of the country 's printed and recorded cultural heritage and other literary and information resources . \n", '', ' = = Global outreach = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = = \n', '', ' Sister cities of Manila \n', '', ' = = = = Asia / Pacific Rim = = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = North America = = = = \n', '', '', '', ' = <unk> ( palm ) = \n', '', ' <unk> is a large genus of <unk> native to Mexico , the Caribbean , Central and South America . This <unk> <unk> , non @-@ spiny genus includes both small <unk> lacking an <unk> stem and large trees . The genus has a complicated taxonomic history , and has often been split into four or five genera based on differences in the male flowers . Since the genera can only be distinguished on the basis of their male flowers , the existence of intermediate flower types and the existence of hybrids between different genera has been used as an argument for keeping them all in the same genus . This has been supported by a recent molecular phylogeny . \n', ' Somewhere between 29 and 67 species are recognised in the genus , with estimates of as many as 100 . <unk> <unk> collections make it difficult to determine whether certain groups represent single species , or groups of similar species . <unk> species have a long history of human use , and include economically important sources of palm oil and fibre . Many species are fire tolerant and thrive in disturbed habitats . Their seeds are animal dispersed , including some which are thought to have been adapted for dispersal by now @-@ extinct Pleistocene <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Description = = \n', '', ' The genus <unk> has <unk> compound leaves — rows of leaflets emerge on either side of the axis of the leaf in a feather @-@ like or <unk> @-@ like pattern . Species are also non @-@ spiny <unk> and includes both large trees with stout stems up to 30 metres ( 98 ft ) tall and <unk> <unk> ( one which lack an <unk> stem ) . The number of leaves per individual varies from about three to thirty @-@ five ; larger plants tend to have more and longer leaves . \n', ' <unk> are large , branched and borne among the leaves . The <unk> consists of a main axis — the <unk> and the <unk> — and a series of smaller branches , the <unk> . The <unk> , which bear the flowers , emerge from the <unk> . The <unk> is the main stalk , connecting the <unk> with the stem . <unk> either consist entirely of male flowers , or are predominantly female with a few male flowers . Fruit usually have two or three seeds , although fewer or more are present in some species , and are usually brown , yellow , orange @-@ brown or purple when mature . \n', ' Four different types of male flowers exist . On the basis of these flower types , the genus has often been split into four genera — a more narrowly defined <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . The species sometimes referred to <unk> have coiled <unk> , while the other groups have straight ones . The <unk> of those placed in <unk> are much shorter than the <unk> , while those placed in <unk> and a more narrowly defined <unk> have <unk> that are longer than the <unk> . Five species do not fit easily into any of these groups ; this fact has been used as an argument in favour of considering this group a single genus . \n', '', ' = = Taxonomy = = \n', '', ' <unk> has been placed in the subfamily <unk> , the tribe <unk> and the <unk> <unk> , together with the genera <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . Within this <unk> , <unk> has been found to be a monophyletic group , and sister to the clade containing <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . \n', ' <unk> exists as to whether <unk> should be considered a single genus , or a group of related genera . In their 1996 Field Guide to the <unk> of the Americas , Andrew Henderson , Gloria <unk> and <unk> <unk> combined all the species in the <unk> <unk> ( as it was then defined ) into a single genus , <unk> . In his 1999 <unk> Treatment of Palm <unk> <unk> , American botanist Sidney F. <unk> divided the group into five genera — a more narrowly defined <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> . <unk> <unk> and John <unk> recognised a single genus in their 2005 World <unk> of <unk> , and Jean @-@ Christophe <unk> continued this usage in his 2008 review of the genus . \n', " The multi @-@ genus approach is based solely on the structure of the male flowers ; no other characters could be consistently associated with one genus or another . Four of the genera — <unk> ( in a narrow sense ) , <unk> , <unk> and <unk> — correspond to four different types of male flowers found within the genus . However , a few species have flowers that are intermediate between these four types , including A. <unk> ( which <unk> placed in its own genus , <unk> ) and this has been used as an argument for the single @-@ genus approach . In addition , there are several hybrids between species that would be considered different genera under <unk> 's five @-@ genus system , which has also been used as an argument for placing them in a single genus . In 2009 Alan <unk> and colleagues published a molecular phylogeny of the <unk> which found that some species placed in <unk> were actually more closely related to species placed in <unk> than they were to other members of that genus ( if the five @-@ genus approach was used ) , while A. <unk> , placed in <unk> by <unk> , was actually a sister to both <unk> and <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = History = = = \n', '', " The genus <unk> was first described Carl <unk> <unk> in 1816 based on specimens collected by Alexander von Humboldt and Aimé <unk> , although older , pre @-@ <unk> descriptions exist , including Charles <unk> 's 1703 description of A. <unk> . The genus was named for <unk> III <unk> , king of <unk> , known for his interest in <unk> plants . The type species is A. <unk> , a Colombian endemic . The genera <unk> and <unk> were described by Carl Friedrich Philipp von <unk> in 1826 and 1837 respectively . <unk> was described by Hermann <unk> in 1857 , and <unk> by <unk> F. Cook in 1942 . \n", '', ' = = = Species = = = \n', '', " Experts disagree about the number of species in the genus <unk> ( broadly defined ) . In 1965 , Dutch <unk> Jan Gerard <unk> Boer estimated that there may be as many as 100 species in the genus . In their 1996 Field Guide to the <unk> of the Americas Andrew Henderson and <unk> recognised 29 species in the genus , while Sidney <unk> recognised 65 species in his 1999 treatment of the group . Largely following <unk> 's lead , <unk> <unk> and John <unk> recognised 67 species in their 2005 World <unk> of <unk> . An important element of this disagreement is the decision by <unk> to define species more narrowly than Henderson . As a result , what Henderson interpreted as variation within species , <unk> took as differences between <unk> similar species . This problem is complicated by the fact that many of these species are poorly represented in <unk> collections . The large size of the leaves , inflorescences and fruit of many <unk> species makes them difficult to collect . In addition , many important collections , including type specimen , have been lost or destroyed . <unk> or incomplete collections make it difficult to differentiate variation within a single species from variation between different species . \n", " The three recent treatments ( Henderson and <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> and <unk> ) recognised a total of 73 species , but only 20 species are accepted by all of them . The remainder account for either nine species or more than 40 . For example , what Andrew Henderson considered a single species , <unk> <unk> , other authors have considered a species complex consisting of four or five species . <unk> doubted the validity of A. <unk> as a species , and described four new species from material that had previously been attributed to A. <unk> — A. <unk> , A. <unk> , A. <unk> and A. <unk> . <unk> and <unk> accepted both <unk> 's four species and A. <unk> . However , Jean @-@ Christophe <unk> was of the opinion that A. <unk> , A. <unk> and A. <unk> were all very similar , and thought it likely that they all represented the same species . \n", ' Another species complex in <unk> includes A. <unk> and related species . Henderson ( 1995 ) recognised A. <unk> and A. <unk> , considering the latter to either be an <unk> form of A. <unk> or a hybrid between it and A. <unk> . <unk> and <unk> accepted A. <unk> , but <unk> considered it a dubious taxon . <unk> <unk> was recognised as a distinct species by Michael <unk> and <unk> ; <unk> and <unk> and <unk> concurred , but Henderson considered it part of A. <unk> . <unk> also described a fourth member of this group , A. <unk> , and it is accepted by <unk> and <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Reproduction and growth = = \n', '', ' <unk> species are <unk> — male and female flowers are separate , but are borne by the same plant . Various species have been described as being insect @-@ <unk> , including A. <unk> , while <unk> in A. <unk> and A. <unk> , has been attributed both to insects and wind . \n', ' <unk> <unk> is remote tubular — during <unk> , as the <unk> expands it pushes the young shoot away from the seed . After <unk> , the stem initially grows downward before turning to grow upward and produce the <unk> stem . This produces a " saxophone shaped " <unk> portion of the stem . The fact that the shoot tips of <unk> seedlings are underground it likely to contribute to their fire @-@ tolerance . \n', '', ' = = Distribution = = \n', '', ' Species range across the <unk> from Mexico in the north to Bolivia , Paraguay , and southern Brazil in the south . According to <unk> and <unk> , three species are found in Mexico , four in Central America , and 62 in South America . Three species are present in the Caribbean — two in Trinidad and <unk> , along the southern edge of the region , and one in Haiti . \n', '', ' = = Habitat and ecology = = \n', '', ' <unk> includes both large trees and small <unk> <unk> which occupy a number of different ecological niches . <unk> stands of some of the larger species are conspicuous elements on the landscape , while smaller species are found in both in the forest <unk> and in <unk> . \n', ' <unk> has been implicated in the formation of vegetation dominated by large <unk> species . In seasonally dry <unk> forests the density of large adult A. <unk> <unk> was correlated with canopy <unk> ; the species also dominates <unk> formed by repeated forest fires in Trinidad and <unk> . <unk> <unk> forms pure stands in many parts of Brazil where natural forest vegetation has been cleared . Similarly , stands of A. <unk> in <unk> , Brazil ( which are cultivated for <unk> fibre ) are managed using fire — the seedlings survive cutting and burning , and are able to dominate burned forest patches . \n', ' The fruit are dispersed by animals ; fruit which are not dispersed frequently suffer seed predation by <unk> beetles . Certain species of <unk> have been mentioned as examples of " <unk> " species which are adapted for dispersal by now @-@ extinct Pleistocene <unk> . On <unk> Island , <unk> , in the Brazilian Amazon , <unk> <unk> fruit were consumed by <unk> , <unk> <unk> , deer and <unk> . <unk> , including <unk> , fed upon the fruit and , as the fruit availability declined , they fed on the seeds . Other <unk> of <unk> fruit include <unk> <unk> which consume the fruit and disperse the seeds of A. <unk> in the Brazilian <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Uses = = \n', '', ' <unk> species have a long history of human <unk> . <unk> <unk> <unk> seeds have been found in archaeological sites in Colombia dating back to 9000 BP . A variety of species remain important sources of edible oil , <unk> , edible seeds and fibre . The leaves of <unk> <unk> and A. <unk> are used extensively for <unk> . Several species are oil <unk> , with A. <unk> among the most important economically . <unk> extracted from A. <unk> were reported to support over 300 @,@ 000 households in the Brazilian state of <unk> in 2005 , and in 1985 it was estimated to support over 450 @,@ 000 households throughout the Brazil . <unk> fibres , extracted from the leaf bases of A. <unk> , are commercially important , and generated about US $ 20 million in annual income to Brazilian farmers in 1996 . \n', '', '', ' = The Heart of Ezra Greer = \n', '', " The Heart of Ezra Greer is a 1917 American silent drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company and directed by Emile <unk> . The film focuses on Ezra Greer , a successful middle @-@ aged man who searches for his college age daughter , Mary . The <unk> Mary was <unk> and abandoned by Jack <unk> , later bearing his child . Once Ezra becomes broke he finds employment as the <unk> for Jack <unk> . After Jack 's engagement to a cabaret girl , Mary becomes upset and leaves her child at Jack 's home . Contrary to Jack 's wishes , Ezra keeps the child and Jack ultimately reveals that the child is his own . Ezra convinces Jack to make things right and Ezra convinces the cabaret girl to leave Jack . After a carriage accident in which the baby is injured , Ezra and Jack rush to the hospital and find Mary as a nurse crying over the child . The film ends with the marriage of Jack and Mary . The film was released by <unk> on October 7 , 1917 . The film was the final release from Thanhouser and was deemed to be an average film by most reviewers . Criticism for the film <unk> on far @-@ <unk> coincidences to drive the plot . The film is presumed lost . \n", '', ' = = Plot = = \n', '', " The film follows Ezra Greer , a middle @-@ aged man who has worked hard since his youth . He cares deeply for his <unk> daughter , Mary , but was unable to attend the annual commencement at her co @-@ educational college . He awaits for her to return from college , but Mary leaves with her romantic interest , Jack <unk> . On promise of marriage and wealth , Mary is <unk> and gives birth to a <unk> child . Without word from his daughter , Ezra <unk> from his job and attempts to seek her out and finds a poor <unk> child , Marie . With Ezra 's money exhausted he seeks employment and finds it as the <unk> of Jack . \n", ' One day , Mary seeks an announcement of Jack \'s engagement to a cabaret girl known as " The Baby <unk> " . <unk> over the prospect of her child \'s future , she leaves the child at Jack \'s home during his absence with a note . Jack orders Ezra to take the baby to an orphanage , but Marie begs Ezra to keep him . After continually seeing the child , Jack is overcome with remorse and explains to Ezra and seeks his advice . Not knowing he was making the case for his own daughter , Ezra convinces Jack to seek out Mary and forget the Baby <unk> . The Baby <unk> seeks out Jack , but finds Ezra who convinces her to leave Jack . Jack \'s son is later injured in a coach accident and is taken to the hospital . Jack and Ezra rush to the hospital and find Mary , as a nurse , crying over the injured child . Ezra is enraged upon learning that his own daughter was <unk> by Jack , but Mary steps between the two men . Jack apologizes and wants to make it right . The film concludes with Jack and Mary . \n', '', ' = = Cast = = \n', '', ' Frederick <unk> as Ezra Greer \n', ' <unk> Frost as Mary \n', ' George Forth as Jack <unk> \n', " Thomas A. <unk> as <unk> 's guardian \n", ' <unk> Mueller as Amy <unk> \n', " Carey L. Hastings as <unk> 's housekeeper \n", ' Helen <unk> as the poor little girl \n', " Gerald <unk> as the millionaire 's baby \n", ' W. Ray Johnston \n', '', ' = = Production = = \n', '', " The film was the final production and release of the Thanhouser Company and it was to be released through <unk> . Numerous factors would play into the winding down and eventual closing of the Thanhouser Film Corporation with much advance notice by Edwin Thanhouser . Q. David Bowers writes that it was easy to understand Thanhouser 's decision to retire due to numerous aspects including that releases through <unk> were based on their decision to release or <unk> the work , the New Rochelle studio was 2 @,@ 500 miles from the center of the trade activity and the slump in industry tied to World War I. Weeks before the film was released , Variety told of the winding down of the Thanhouser with the studio 's staff consisting of Edwin Thanhouser and the <unk> , <unk> B. Bishop . The article concluded with the announcement that Lloyd F. Lonergan , the scenario writer of the company , had retired from the company . As it wound down , the Thanhouser Company was announced to have no <unk> would close with a positive bank balance . Little is known of the production of this final film , but it was directed by Emile <unk> from a scenario written by Lloyd F. Lonergan . The cameraman was Jacques <unk> . \n", '', ' = = Release and reception = = \n', '', " The five reel film was released through the <unk> Exchange as a <unk> Gold Rooster Play on October 7 , 1917 . Charles E. Wagner of the <unk> 's Trade Review found it to be a good film with great direction and photography , but was concerned that the stunt in which the baby appeared to be involved in the accident was too real . Wagner stated the film had sufficient action and pathos without sexual <unk> ; which should prove a strong program for the <unk> program . Frances Agnew of The Morning Telegraph found it to be an average picture that was not exceptional for audiences , but it would hold sentimental appeal for the average viewer . A reviewer for the The New York Dramatic Mirror found the film 's excessive use of <unk> meetings to be highly <unk> , but found <unk> 's performance to be excellent and the rest of the cast give good performances . The reviewer said that Emile <unk> had made the <unk> story more plausible . \n", ' Like many American films of the time , The Heart of Ezra Greer was subject to cuts by city and state film censorship boards . The Chicago Board of <unk> required the cutting in <unk> 2 of a letter stating , " I cannot face my father , " etc . , and two <unk> of gambling scenes ; and in <unk> 5 a change of the <unk> " Because it means her whole future " to " Because she is his wife " . \n', '', '', ' = Free Derry = \n', '', ' Free Derry ( Irish : <unk> <unk> ) was a self @-@ declared autonomous nationalist area of Derry , Northern Ireland , that existed between 1969 and 1972 . Its name was taken from a sign painted on a gable wall in the <unk> in January 1969 which read , " You are now entering Free Derry " . The area , which included the <unk> and <unk> neighbourhoods , was secured by community activists for the first time on 5 January 1969 following an incursion into the <unk> by members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary ( <unk> ) . Residents built barricades and carried clubs and similar arms to prevent the <unk> from entering . After six days the residents took down the barricades and <unk> patrols resumed , but tensions remained high over the following months . \n', ' Violence reached a peak on 12 August 1969 , culminating in the Battle of the <unk> — a three @-@ day pitched battle between residents and the <unk> . On 14 August units of the British Army were deployed at the edge of the <unk> and the <unk> were withdrawn . The Derry Citizens Defence Association ( <unk> ) declared their intention to hold the area against both the <unk> and the British Army until their demands were met . The British Army made no attempt to enter the area . The situation continued until October 1969 when , following publication of the Hunt Report , military police were allowed in . \n', " The Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) began to re @-@ arm and recruit after August 1969 . In December 1969 it split into the Official IRA and the Provisional IRA . Both were supported by the people of the Free Derry area . Meanwhile , relations between the British Army and the nationalist community , which were initially good , deteriorated . In July 1971 there was a surge of recruitment into the IRA after two young men were shot and killed by British troops . The government introduced <unk> on 9 August 1971 , and in response , barricades went up once more in the <unk> and <unk> . This time , Free Derry was a no @-@ go area , defended by armed members of both the Official and Provisional IRA . From within the area they launched attacks on the British Army , and the <unk> began a bombing campaign in the city centre . As before , unarmed ' <unk> ' manned the barricades , and crime was dealt with by a voluntary body known as the Free Derry Police . \n", ' Support for the IRA increased further after Bloody Sunday in January 1972 , when thirteen unarmed men and boys were shot dead by the British Army \'s Parachute Regiment at a march in the <unk> ( a 14th man was wounded and died 4 ½ months later ) . The support began to <unk> after the killing by the Official IRA of a local youth who was home on leave from the British Army . After a Provisional IRA ceasefire , during which it entered talks with the British government , broke down , the British took the decision to move against the " no @-@ go " areas . Free Derry came to an end on 31 July 1972 , when thousands of British troops moved in with armoured cars and <unk> to occupy the area . \n', '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', ' Derry City lies near the border between Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland . It has a majority nationalist population , and nationalists won a majority of seats in the 1920 local elections . Despite this , the Ulster Unionist Party controlled the local council , <unk> Corporation , from 1923 onwards . The <unk> maintained their majority , firstly , by manipulating the constituency boundaries ( <unk> ) so that the South Ward , with a nationalist majority , returned eight councillors while the much smaller North Ward and <unk> Ward , with unionist <unk> , returned twelve councillors between them ; <unk> , by allowing only <unk> to vote in local elections , rather than one man , one vote , so that a higher number of nationalists , who did not own homes , were disenfranchised ; and <unk> , by denying houses to nationalists outside the South Ward constituency . The result was that there were about 2 @,@ 000 nationalist families , and practically no unionists , on the housing waiting list , and that housing in the nationalist area was crowded and of a very poor condition . The South Ward comprised the <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Bishop Street and Foyle Road , and it was this area that would become Free Derry . \n', ' The Derry Housing Action Committee ( <unk> ) was formed in March 1968 by members of the Derry Branch of the Northern Ireland Labour Party and the James <unk> Republican Club , including <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . It disrupted a meeting of <unk> Corporation in March 1968 and in May blocked traffic by placing a caravan that was home to a family of four in the middle of the <unk> Road in the <unk> and staging a sit @-@ down protest at the opening of the second deck of the <unk> Bridge . After the meeting of <unk> Corporation was again disrupted in August , <unk> <unk> telephoned the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association ( <unk> ) and invited them to hold a march in Derry . The date chosen was 5 October 1968 , an <unk> committee was formed ( although in reality most of the organizing was done by <unk> and <unk> ) and the route was to take the <unk> inside the city walls , where nationalists were traditionally not permitted to march . The Minister of Home Affairs , William Craig , made an order on 3 October prohibiting the march on the grounds that the <unk> Boys of Derry were intending to hold a march on the same day . In the words of Martin <unk> of <unk> " this particular tactic ... provided the excuse needed to ban the march . " When the <unk> attempted to defy the ban on 5 October they were stopped by a Royal Ulster Constabulary ( <unk> ) cordon . The police drew their <unk> and struck <unk> , including <unk> MP Eddie <unk> and Westminster MP Gerry <unk> . Subsequently the police " broke ranks and used their <unk> <unk> on people in Duke Street " . <unk> trying to escape met another party of police and " these police also used their <unk> <unk> . " Water cannons were also used . The police action caused outrage in the nationalist area of Derry , and at a meeting four days later the Derry Citizens \' Action Committee ( <unk> ) was formed , with John Hume as chairman and Ivan Cooper as vice @-@ chairman . \n', '', ' = = The first barricades = = \n', '', ' Another group formed as a result of the events of 5 October was People \'s Democracy , a group of students in Queen \'s University Belfast . They organised a march from Belfast to Derry in support of civil rights , starting out with about forty young people on 1 January 1969 . The march met with violent opposition from loyalist counter @-@ demonstrators at several points along the route . Finally , at <unk> Bridge , five miles outside Derry , they were attacked by a mob of about two hundred wielding clubs — some of them studded with nails — and stones . Half of the attackers were later identified from press photographs as members of the B @-@ <unk> . The police , who were at the scene , <unk> to the B @-@ <unk> as they prepared their ambush , and then failed to protect the <unk> , many of whom ran into the river and were <unk> with stones from the bank . Dozens of <unk> were taken to hospital . The remainder continued on to Derry where they were attacked once more on their way to <unk> Bridge before they finally reached Guildhall Square , where they held a rally . <unk> broke out after the rally . Police drove <unk> into the <unk> , but did not come after them . In the early hours of the following morning , 5 January , members of the <unk> charged into St. <unk> \'s Wells and <unk> Road in the <unk> , breaking windows and beating residents . In his report on the disturbances , Lord Cameron remarked that " for such conduct among members of a disciplined and well @-@ led force there can be no acceptable justification or excuse " and added that " its effect in <unk> <unk> and inspiring hostility towards the police was <unk> great . " \n', ' That afternoon over 1 @,@ 500 <unk> residents built barricades , armed themselves with steel bars , wooden clubs and <unk> , and told the police that they would not be allowed into the area . <unk> chairman John Hume told a meeting of residents that they were to defend the area and no @-@ one was to come in . Groups of men wearing <unk> patrolled the streets in shifts . John \' <unk> \' Casey , a local activist , painted " You are now entering Free Derry " in white paint on the gable wall of a house on the corner of <unk> Road and <unk> Street . That corner , which was a popular venue for meetings , later became known as " Free Derry Corner " . On 7 January , the <unk> area was extended to include the <unk> , another nationalist area on a hill overlooking the <unk> . A clandestine radio station calling itself " Radio Free Derry " began broadcasting to residents , playing rebel songs and encouraging resistance . On a small number of occasions law @-@ <unk> attempted crimes , but were dealt with by the patrols . Despite all this , the Irish Times reported that " the infrastructure of revolutionary control in the area has not been developed beyond the maintenance of patrols . " Following some acts of destruction and of violence late in the week , members of the <unk> including Ivan Cooper addressed residents on Friday , 10 January and called on them to <unk> the barricades . The barricades were taken down the following morning . \n', '', ' = = April 1969 = = \n', '', ' Over the next three months there were violent clashes , with local youths throwing stones at police . Violence came to a head on Saturday , 19 April after a planned march from <unk> Bridge to the city centre was banned . A protest in the city centre led to clashes with " <unk> " — unionists in sympathy with the anti @-@ civil rights stance of Ian Paisley . Police attempting to drive the protesters back into the <unk> were themselves driven back to their barracks . A series of pitched battles followed , and barricades were built , often under the supervision of <unk> Devlin , newly elected MP for Mid Ulster . Police pursuing <unk> broke into a house in William Street and severely beat the <unk> , Samuel <unk> , his family and two friends . <unk> was brought to hospital " bleeding <unk> from a number of head wounds . " At midnight four hundred <unk> men in full riot gear and carrying riot shields occupied the <unk> . <unk> of police vehicles drove through the area with <unk> <unk> . \n', " The following day , several thousand residents , led by the <unk> , withdrew to the <unk> and issued an ultimatum to the <unk> — withdraw within two hours or be driven out . With fifteen minutes of the two hours remaining , the police marched out through the <unk> 's Gate , even as the residents were entering from the far side . The barricades were not maintained on this occasion , and routine patrols were not prevented . \n", " Samuel <unk> suffered a heart attack four days after his beating . On 17 July he suffered a further heart attack and died . Thousands attended his funeral , and the mood was sufficiently angry that it was clear the annual <unk> Boys ' parade , scheduled for 12 August , could not take place without causing serious disturbance . \n", '', ' = = August – October 1969 = = \n', '', ' The <unk> Boys \' parade is an annual celebration by unionists of the relief of the Siege of Derry in 1689 , which began when thirteen young apprentice boys shut the city \'s gates against the army of King James . At that time the parade was held on 12 August each year . Participants from across Northern Ireland and Britain marched along the city walls above the <unk> , and were often openly hostile to the residents . On 30 July 1969 the Derry Citizens Defence Association ( <unk> ) was formed to try to preserve peace during the period of the parade , and to defend the <unk> and <unk> in the event of an attack . The chairman was <unk> <unk> , an Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) veteran ; the vice @-@ chairman was Paddy Doherty , a popular local man sometimes known as " Paddy <unk> " and the secretary was <unk> White , another leading republican and leader of the James <unk> Republican Club . Street committees were formed under the overall command of the <unk> and barricades were built on the night of 11 August . The parade took place as planned on 12 August . As it passed through Waterloo Place , on the edge of the <unk> , hostilities began between supporters and opponents of the parade . Fighting between the two groups continued for two hours , then the police joined in . They charged up William Street against the <unk> , followed by the \' <unk> \' . They were met with a hail of stones and petrol bombs . The ensuing battle became known as the Battle of the <unk> . Late in the evening , having been driven back repeatedly , the police fired <unk> of <unk> gas into the crowd . <unk> on the roof of a high @-@ rise block of flats on <unk> Street threw petrol bombs down on the police . <unk> @-@ <unk> were used to maintain contact between different areas of fighting and <unk> headquarters in Paddy Doherty \'s house in Westland Street , and first aid stations were operating , staffed by doctors , nurses and volunteers . Women and girls made milk @-@ bottle <unk> of petrol bombs for supply to the youths in the front line and " Radio Free Derry " broadcast to the fighters and their families . On the third day of fighting , 14 August , the Northern Ireland Government mobilised the Ulster Special Constabulary ( B @-@ <unk> ) , a force greatly feared by nationalists in Derry and elsewhere . Before they engaged , however , British troops were deployed at the scene , carrying automatic rifles and sub @-@ machine guns . The <unk> and B @-@ <unk> withdrew , and the troops took up positions outside the <unk> area . \n', ' A <unk> that included <unk> <unk> met senior army officers and told them that the army would not be allowed in until certain demands were met , including the <unk> of the <unk> , the disbandment of the B @-@ <unk> and the abolition of <unk> ( the Parliament and Government of Northern Ireland ) . The officers agreed that neither troops nor police would enter the <unk> and <unk> districts . A \' peace corps \' was formed to maintain law and order . When the British Home Secretary , Jim <unk> , visited Northern Ireland and announced his intention to visit the <unk> on 28 August , he was told that he would not be allowed to bring either police or soldiers with him . <unk> agreed . <unk> by members of the Defence Committee , he was " swept along by a <unk> crowd of thousands " up <unk> Street and into <unk> Road , where he " took refuge " in a local house , and later addressed crowds from an upstairs window . In preparation for <unk> \'s visit the " Free Derry " wall was painted white and the " You are now entering Free Derry " sign was professionally re @-@ painted in black <unk> . \n', ' Following <unk> \'s visit , some barricades were breached , but the majority remained while the people awaited concrete evidence of reform . Still the army made no move to enter the area . Law and order was maintained by a \' peace corps \' — volunteers organised by the <unk> to patrol the streets and man the barricades . There was very little crime . <unk> , in the words of <unk> <unk> , " as often as not consisted of a stern lecture from <unk> <unk> on the need for solidarity within the area . " In September the barricades were replaced with a white line painted on the road . \n', " The Hunt Report on the future of policing in Northern Ireland was presented to the <unk> cabinet in early October . Jim <unk> held talks with the cabinet in Belfast on 10 October , following which the report 's recommendations were accepted and made public . They included the recommendation that the <unk> should be ' ordinarily ' unarmed , and that the B @-@ <unk> should be phased out and replaced by a new force . The new <unk> Chief Constable , Arthur Young , an <unk> , was announced , and travelled to Belfast with <unk> . The same day , <unk> <unk> announced that the <unk> was to be dissolved . On 11 October <unk> and Young visited Free Derry , and on 12 October the first military police entered the <unk> , on foot and unarmed . \n", '', ' = = IRA resurgence = = \n', '', ' The Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) had been inactive militarily since the end of the Border Campaign in 1962 . It was low in both personnel and equipment — Chief of Staff <unk> <unk> told <unk> <unk> and Paddy Doherty in August 1969 that he " couldn \'t defend the <unk> . I haven \'t the men nor the guns to do it . " During the 1960s the leadership of the republican movement had moved to the left . Its focus was on class struggle and its aim was to unite the Irish nationalist and unionist working classes in order to overthrow capitalism , both British and Irish . Republican <unk> were formed in Northern Ireland , where <unk> <unk> was proscribed . These clubs were involved in the formation of <unk> in 1967 . In Derry , the James <unk> Republican Club worked closely with Labour Party radicals , with whom they set up the Derry Housing Action Committee and Derry <unk> Action Committee . The Derry Citizens \' Defence Association was formed initially by <unk> , who then invited other nationalists to join . Although there were tensions between the younger leaders like <unk> White and the older , traditional <unk> such as <unk> <unk> , both sides saw the unrest of 1968 @-@ 69 as a chance to advance republican aims , and the two shared the platform at the Easter Rising commemoration in April 1969 . \n', " The events of August 1969 in Derry , and more particularly in Belfast where the IRA was unable to prevent loss of life or protect families burned out of their homes , brought to a head the divisions that had already appeared within the movement between the radicals and the <unk> , and led to a split in December 1969 into the Official IRA and the Provisional IRA . Initially , both armies organised for defensive purposes only , although the <unk> were planning towards an offensive campaign . In Derry there was far less hostility between the two organisations than elsewhere and <unk> commonly paid subscriptions to both . When <unk> were arrested after the Official 's Easter parade in March 1970 , Officials and <unk> <unk> their trial together . At the start the Officials attracted most of the younger members . Martin McGuinness , who in August 1969 had helped defend the barricades , initially joined the Officials , but a few months later left to join the <unk> . \n", " Relations between the British Army and the residents had steadily decayed since the first appearance of troops in August 1969 . In September , after clashes between nationalist and unionist crowds that led to the death of a Protestant man , William King , the British Army erected a ' peace ring ' to <unk> the nationalist population in the area they had previously controlled . Roads into the city centre were closed at night and people were prevented from walking on certain streets . Although some moderate nationalists accepted this as necessary , there was anger among young people . <unk> between youths and troops became more frequent . The riot following the Officials ' Easter parade in March 1970 marked the first time that the army used ' <unk> squads ' , who rushed into the <unk> wielding <unk> to make arrests . The <unk> squads soon became a common feature of army arrest operations . There was also a belief that they were arresting people at random , sometimes days after the alleged offence , and based on the identification of people that they had seen from a considerable distance . The <unk> were condemned as <unk> by <unk> , who saw the riots as hampering attempts to resolve the situation . The Labour radicals and Official <unk> , still working together , tried to turn the youth away from rioting and create socialist organizations — one such organization was named the Young <unk> Association — but to no <unk> . The <unk> , while <unk> of riots , viewed them as the inevitable consequence of British occupation . This philosophy was more attractive to <unk> , and some of them joined the Provisional IRA . The deaths of two leading <unk> in a premature explosion in June 1970 resulted in young militants becoming more prominent in the organization . Nevertheless , up to July 1971 the Provisional IRA remained numerically small . \n", ' Two men , <unk> <unk> and Desmond Beattie , were shot dead in separate incidents in the early morning and afternoon of 8 July 1971 . They were the first people to be killed by the British Army in Derry . In both cases the British Army claimed that the men were attacking them with guns or bombs , while <unk> insisted that both were unarmed . The Social Democratic and Labour Party ( <unk> ) , the newly formed party of which John Hume and Ivan Cooper were leading members , withdrew from <unk> in protest , but among residents there was a perception that moderate policies had failed . The result was a surge of support for the IRA . The <unk> held a meeting the following Sunday at which they called on people to " join the IRA " . Following the meeting , people <unk> up to join , and there was large @-@ scale rioting . The British Army post at <unk> \'s Lane came under sustained attack , and troops there and around the city came under fire from the IRA . \n', '', ' = = <unk> and the third Free Derry = = \n', '', ' The increasing violence in Derry and elsewhere led to increasing speculation that <unk> without trial would be introduced in Northern Ireland , and on 9 August 1971 hundreds of <unk> and nationalists were arrested in dawn raids . In Derry , residents came out onto the streets to resist the arrests , and fewer people were taken there than elsewhere ; nevertheless leading figures including <unk> <unk> and <unk> White were interned . In response , barricades were erected once again and the third Free Derry came into existence . Unlike its predecessors , this Free Derry was marked by a strong IRA presence , both Official and Provisional . It was defended by armed <unk> — a no @-@ go area , one in which British security forces were unable to operate . \n', ' Gun attacks on the British Army increased . Six soldiers were wounded in the first day after <unk> , and shortly afterwards a soldier was killed — the first to be killed by either IRA in Derry . The army moved in in force on 18 August to <unk> the barricades . A gun battle ensued in which a young Provisional IRA officer , <unk> <unk> , was killed . A crowd staging a sit @-@ down protest was <unk> down and the protesters , including John Hume and Ivan Cooper , arrested . With barricades re @-@ appearing as quickly as they were removed , the army eventually abandoned their attempt . \n', ' The Derry <unk> had little contact with the IRA elsewhere . They had few weapons ( about twenty ) which they used mainly for sniping . At the same time , they launched their bombing campaign in Derry . Unlike in Belfast , they were careful to avoid killing or injuring innocent people . <unk> <unk> wrote that " the Derry <unk> , under Martin McGuinness , had managed to bomb the city centre until it looked as if it had been hit from the air without causing any civilian casualties . " \n', " Although both <unk> operated openly , neither was in control of Free Derry . The barricades were manned by unarmed ' <unk> ' . Crime was dealt with by a volunteer force called the Free Derry Police , which was headed by Tony O <unk> , a Derry footballer and Northern Ireland International . \n", '', ' = = Bloody Sunday = = \n', '', " An anti @-@ <unk> protest organised by the Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association ( <unk> ) at <unk> Camp in January 1972 was met with violence from the 1st Battalion , The Parachute Regiment ( 1 <unk> ) . <unk> had organised a march from the <unk> to Derry city centre , in defiance of a ban , on the following Sunday , 30 January 1972 . Both <unk> were asked , and agreed , to suspend operations on that day to ensure the march passed off peacefully . The British Army erected barricades around the Free Derry area to prevent <unk> from reaching the city centre . On the day , march organisers turned the march away from the barriers and up to Free Derry Corner , but some youths proceeded to the barrier at William Street and <unk> soldiers . Troops from 1 <unk> then moved into Free Derry and opened fire , killing thirteen people , all of whom were subsequently found to be unarmed . A fourteenth shooting victim died four months later in June 1972 . Like the killing of <unk> and Beattie the previous year , Bloody Sunday had the effect of hugely increasing recruitment to the IRA , even among people who previously would have been ' <unk> ' . \n", '', ' = = February - July 1972 = = \n', '', " Both the Provisional and Official IRA stepped up attacks after Bloody Sunday , with the tacit support of the residents . Local feelings changed , however , with the killing of Ranger William Best by the Official IRA . Best was a 19 @-@ year @-@ old local man who was home on leave from the British Army at his parents ' house in the <unk> . He was abducted , interrogated and shot . The following day 500 women marched to the Republican Club offices in protest . Nine days later , on 29 May , the Official IRA declared a ceasefire . The Provisional IRA initially stated that they would not follow suit , but after informal approaches to the British Government they announced a ceasefire from 26 June . Martin McGuinness was the Derry representative in a party of senior <unk> who travelled to London for talks with William <unk> , the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland . The talks were not resumed after the ending of the truce following a violent confrontation in Belfast when troops prevented Catholic families from taking over houses in the <unk> estate . \n", ' Political pressure for the action against the " no @-@ go " areas increased after the events of Bloody Friday in Belfast . A British Army attack was considered inevitable , and the IRA took the decision not to resist it . On 31 July 1972 , Operation <unk> was launched when thousands of British troops , equipped with armoured cars and armoured <unk> ( AVREs ) , dismantled the barricades and occupied the area . \n', '', ' = = Subsequent history = = \n', '', " After Operation <unk> , the British Army controlled the <unk> and <unk> by <unk> large numbers of troops within the area , by conducting large @-@ scale ' search ' operations that were in fact undertaken for purposes of intelligence gathering , and by setting up over a dozen covert observation posts . Over the following years IRA violence in the city was contained to the point where it was possible to believe ' the war was over ' in the area , although there were still frequent street riots . Nationalists — even those who did not support the IRA — remained <unk> opposed to the army and to the state . \n", " Many of the residents ' original grievances were addressed with the passing of the Local Government ( Northern Ireland ) Act , 1972 , which <unk> the electoral boundaries and introduced universal adult suffrage based on the single <unk> vote . <unk> were held in May 1973 . Nationalists gained a majority on the council for the first time since 1923 . Since then the area has been extensively redeveloped , with modern housing replacing the old houses and flats . The Free Derry era is commemorated by the Free Derry wall , the murals of the <unk> Artists and the Museum of Free Derry . \n", '', '', ' = Come What ( ever ) May = \n', '', ' Come What ( ever ) May is the second studio album by American alternative metal band Stone <unk> . It was recorded and produced by the band and Nick <unk> at Studio <unk> in Los Angeles , California , and was released on August 1 , 2006 , through Roadrunner Records . Writing for the album began as early as 2003 when vocalist Corey Taylor and guitarist James Root were writing material for their other band , <unk> . In January 2006 Stone <unk> began recording the follow @-@ up to their 2002 debut album Stone <unk> , during which time drummer Joel <unk> left the band due to family constraints . He was eventually replaced by ex @-@ <unk> drummer Roy <unk> who played on all but two tracks on the album . \n', ' Following the release of the album , Stone <unk> went on to promote it for over a year ; releasing five singles and touring in several regions , including the United States , Canada , Japan and several countries in Europe . The album received generally positive reviews . It was praised for showing a progression in the band \'s song writing ability and musical style . It was also certified Gold in the United States and Canada and the single " 30 / 30 @-@ 150 " was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 49th Grammy Awards . On June 26 , 2007 Stone <unk> released a special edition version of the album , it included six previously unreleased tracks and a bonus DVD which featured three music videos and a complete live performance of the band in Moscow . It remains their best @-@ selling album to date , mostly due to the success of the single " Through Glass . " \n', '', ' = = Production = = \n', '', ' In September 2005 , lead singer Corey Taylor announced that Stone <unk> would return with a second album . He said that they had written over 30 songs , some during the writing process of Vol . 3 : ( The <unk> <unk> ) , the third album by vocalist Taylor and guitarist James Root \'s other band <unk> , and that they were working on <unk> the tracks before entering the studio . Dave <unk> was originally slated to produce the album , however , on January 22 , 2006 Stone <unk> began working on the album with producer Nick <unk> at Dave Grohl \'s personal studio ( Studio <unk> ) , in Los Angeles . Time in the studio began with a week of pre @-@ production , during which guitarist Josh Rand says producer <unk> " pushed [ the band ] to the brink and back " to help fine @-@ tune the songs they had previously written . Though Rand and Taylor wrote most of the music and lyrics for the first album , respectively , writing for Come What ( ever ) May was done by all members . \n', ' Following this , the band set out to record 18 tracks and work began on recording Joel <unk> \'s drum tracks . However , <unk> was forced to leave the studio after four weeks due to his young son \'s diagnosis of a <unk> <unk> . With the fate of the album in jeopardy , Stone <unk> recruited ex @-@ <unk> member Roy <unk> as a session drummer . <unk> recorded drums for all but two tracks on the album , Godsmack drummer Shannon <unk> performed on the track " 30 / 30 @-@ 150 " and guitarist Root performed drums on the bonus track " The Day I Let Go . " In an interview with Revolver during the recording process vocalist Taylor talked about the differences between this album and their previous album , Stone <unk> . He said that pressures from fans and the record label were much larger ; also noting that he " <unk> on the pressure , because it gets [ him ] going . " While promising that " the album \'s gonna be miles above the first one , " Taylor explained that it is " more melodic and darker " . In late March 2006 , drummer Joel <unk> officially left Stone <unk> and the band was talking with a few drummers who could replace him . On April 7 , 2006 the recording sessions for Come What ( ever ) May concluded . A month later session drummer Roy <unk> joined Stone <unk> on a full @-@ time basis . \n', '', ' = = Promotion = = \n', '', ' It was announced in March 2006 that Stone <unk> \'s second album , which was tentatively titled " Come What May , " would be released on July 18 , 2006 . However , the release date for the album was pushed back until August 22 . Due to the delay Stone <unk> released a music video for the track " Reborn " , which featured footage of the band working on the album in the studio . The cover artwork from the album was released online on May 20 , 2006 . Shortly after , it was confirmed by a representative from the band \'s record label Roadrunner that the release date had been brought forward , and the official release date would be August 1 , 2006 . On July 31 , 2006 , the day before its release the album was made available online for streaming in its entirety through AOL . \n', ' On May 22 , 2006 the first single from the album , " 30 / 30 @-@ 150 " , was made available online as a free <unk> download . A music video for the single was shot with director <unk> Brown in Los Angeles , the video received a premier on MTV \'s <unk> Ball on June 3 , 2006 . Prior to the release of the second single from the album , " Through Glass " , radio stations throughout the US showed high support for the song . A music video for the single was shot with director Tony <unk> and was released on June 9 , 2006 online through Yahoo ! . The third single from the album , " <unk> " , began receiving radio airplay in November 2006 . A music video for the single was shot in January 2007 and was released online on March 8 , 2007 . The fourth single from the album , " Made of Scars " , featured a music video which was recorded live on April 7 , 2007 and was posted online on June 5 , 2007 . The fifth and final single from the album , " <unk> <unk> . " , started receiving radio airplay in Fall 2007 and no music video was made for the single . \n', ' The band began touring in support of the album prior to its release , initiating touring with several free shows in the US . <unk> by multiple appearances at festivals in Europe . They then joined Korn for their 2006 edition of Family <unk> Tour across the US , which featured 33 dates across 3 months . On August 8 , 2006 Stone <unk> made a special guest appearance on The Tonight Show with Jay <unk> to promote and perform their second single " Through Glass . " They also performed at the Japanese festival Summer Sonic midway through the Family <unk> Tour . Then through November and December 2006 , Stone <unk> joined <unk> for their Music as a <unk> Tour . In January 2007 Stone <unk> joined <unk> for a Canadian tour , followed by a headlining tour of Europe . They then <unk> the Spring 2007 <unk> Music Tour across the US , followed by headlining tours in Australia and Japan . They then started a tour in Europe playing festivals and select headline shows . They wrapped up touring in support of the album with a headlining tour in the US through August and September in 2007 . \n', '', ' = = = Special edition = = = \n', '', ' On June 26 , 2007 , Stone <unk> released a special edition version of the album with six previously unreleased tracks and a bonus DVD . The DVD featured a full concert performance by the band from October 2006 in Moscow and the music videos for " 30 / 30 @-@ 150 , " " Through Glass , " and " <unk> . " When talking about the special edition , vocalist Taylor said , " we really wanted to do something which was really cool , " saying that this shows the band \'s different musical elements and them in their live element , which he says " people really <unk> towards . " In addition to this , Stone <unk> released a live album of their concert in Moscow exclusively on iTunes , entitled Live in Moscow . \n', '', ' = = Musical style = = \n', '', ' In an interview with MTV in 2006 , vocalist Corey Taylor said that Come What ( ever ) May was a return to the roots of the band , stating it is " a lot more from the spirit of what the band started with in 1992 . " <unk> how some songs were " very atmospheric , " while others maintained " the hard rock and the heavy stuff . " Jon <unk> of MTV said that " for every thrash riff there \'s a <unk> <unk> passage , for every <unk> guitar line there \'s a rock @-@ radio hook . " When talking about the track " 30 / 30 @-@ 150 " , he said parts are " <unk> , barbed and heavy , " while others are " soaring and triumphant , " with the production of <unk> helping balance the album \'s <unk> with its radio @-@ accessibility . Come What ( ever ) May \'s lyrics include themes of " pain , pleasure , happiness , and grief . " The diversity in subjects is evident throughout the album , songs including " Come What ( ever ) May " were politically influenced while the track " <unk> " is about " social anxiety attacks " that vocalist Taylor suffered . " <unk> <unk> " is a love song written to Taylor \'s wife for helping him in his struggles against <unk> and contemplation of suicide . " I \'ve never written anything like that before , but it was very important for me to tell the world not only how much she saved me , but how much she means to me , " said Taylor . Taylor said there is a common thread with the lyrics throughout the album , saying that they are " about never forgetting where you came from , who you are and why you do this . " \n', '', ' = = Reception = = \n', '', ' Come What ( ever ) May was met with generally positive critical reviews . Several reviewers noted on how it helped to further establish Stone <unk> . Chad <unk> of About.com stated that the band had " progressed a lot since their debut " , noting that the album was " very diverse and [ allows ] the band to show many different sides of their musical personality . " Megan <unk> of Allmusic opens her review of the album by distinguishing what sets Stone <unk> apart musically , stating " [ it \'s their ] ability to create smooth , radio @-@ friendly alternative metal songs while simultaneously not boring the people who have heard way too much from post @-@ grunge groups . " On a similar note , Michael <unk> of <unk> said " the band is much better at the craft of songwriting than many of their peers . " However , in contrast , reviewer William Fry of IGN criticized the album , saying " Stone <unk> doesn \'t do anything inspired , original , or fresh here " even calling the album " completely <unk> , and <unk> . " A particular point of interest for reviewers was how Come What ( ever ) May is more melodic than their previous album Stone <unk> . <unk> of <unk> said the album is " much more liberal with the <unk> and acoustic sounds than its predecessor , " noting on the track " <unk> " he said " it sounds like what Nickelback could be if Chad <unk> could write a good melody " . In his review , Chad <unk> labeled Come What ( ever ) May as a " very melodic and accessible album " stating that " it has a little something for everyone . " Similarly , Megan <unk> triumphed the album as an " <unk> effort from a promising talent " . \n', ' Come What ( ever ) May sold over 80 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and debuted at the fourth spot on the Billboard 200 in the United States , and went on to be certified gold in the UK , Canada and the United States . In 2007 , the single " 30 / 30 @-@ 150 " was nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 49th Grammy Awards . \n', '', ' = = Track listing = = \n', '', ' All lyrics written by Corey Taylor , all music composed by Stone <unk> . \n', ' On the iTunes deluxe version , the pop version of " <unk> <unk> . " replaced the original version as the 12th track . \n', '', ' = = = Special edition DVD = = = \n', '', '', ' = = Personnel = = \n', '', '', ' = = Chart positions = = \n', '', '', '', ' = Chad at the 2008 Summer Olympics = \n', '', " Chad sent a delegation of two athletes to compete at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China : <unk> <unk> , who competed in the men 's 100 meters , and <unk> <unk> <unk> , who competed in the women 's 100 meters and also bore the <unk> flag during ceremonies . The appearance of this delegation marked the tenth appearance of Chad at the Summer Olympics , the first been in 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo , Japan , and its seventh appearance since its Olympic hiatus between 1976 and 1980 . Both <unk> and <unk> ranked seventh in their respective <unk> and did not advance past the qualification round . As of the end of the 2012 London Olympics , there have been no <unk> from Chad . \n", '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', " Chad is a <unk> country in Africa whose northern region lies within the eastern reaches of the <unk> Desert and whose southern region lies within the eastern portion of the <unk> . It borders Libya to the south , <unk> to the east , Sudan to the west , and the Central African Republic to the north . Chad was originally part of French West Africa until 1960 , when it declared independence . Some four years later , the former French colony made its <unk> at the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo , Japan . For the next three decades , Chad became embroiled in civil war and experienced invasions by Libya and upheavals by Sudanese @-@ backed rebels ; the civil war ended in 1990 , although rebel threats had persisted between then and 2008 . During Chad 's greatest era of instability , athletes from the country did not attend the 1976 Summer Olympics in <unk> , Canada or the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , USSR , although <unk> were sent to all other games between 1964 and 2008 . \n", " The largest <unk> delegation to reach the Olympics appeared in the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea and at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , Spain ; each time , Chad 's National Olympic Committee sent six athletes . During the 1992 games , the <unk> sent the nation 's first female Olympian . Since then ( and up to the Beijing games ) , at least one woman has been a part of the <unk> delegation . The smallest <unk> of <unk> <unk> occurred during the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , when only <unk> <unk> competed on the country 's behalf . The delegation that arrived in Beijing consisted of two athletes — one man ( 30 @-@ year @-@ old <unk> <unk> ) and one woman ( 15 @-@ year @-@ old <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , both participants in track events . <unk> was Chad 's <unk> at the ceremonies . Up to and including the Beijing games , there has yet to have been a <unk> from Chad . \n", '', ' = = Athletics = = \n', '', ' <unk> in athletics events could qualify for the next round of competition in two ways . Qualifying by right was posting a high result in their own heat , and qualifying by result was posting a high result in overall standings . <unk> shown are thus those within each heat , not in overall standings . \n', " <unk> <unk> represented Chad at the Beijing Olympics in the men 's 100 meters dash . Born in 1977 , <unk> first participated in the Olympics at age 22 when he raced in the men 's 100 meters at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Australia , placing seventh in his qualification heat and not progressing to later rounds . He did not attend the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece , but returned to the Olympics at Beijing at the age of 30 . During the course of the August 14 , 2008 races in his event , when the qualification round took place , <unk> competed in the tenth heat against seven other athletes . He finished the race in 11 @.@ 14 seconds , placing seventh in the heat ahead of <unk> 's <unk> <unk> ( 11 @.@ 48 seconds ) and behind Gabon 's Wilfried <unk> ( 10 @.@ 87 seconds ) in a heat led by the Netherlands Antilles ' <unk> <unk> ( 10 @.@ 35 seconds ) and Japan 's <unk> <unk> ( 10 @.@ 39 seconds ) . Of the 80 athletes who participated in the events , the <unk> <unk> ranked 70th . He did not advance to later rounds . \n", " <unk> <unk> <unk> competed on Chad 's behalf as the national delegation 's only female athlete at the Beijing games . She participated in the women 's 100 meters dash , and was 15 years old at the time of the competition . <unk> had not previously competed in any Olympic games . During the qualification round of the event , which took place on August 15 , 2008 , <unk> competed in the eighth heat against seven other athletes . She finished the race in 12 @.@ 55 seconds , placing seventh ; she defeated the Democratic Republic of the Congo 's <unk> <unk> ( 12 @.@ 57 seconds ) and fell behind Papua New Guinea 's <unk> <unk> ( 11 @.@ 68 seconds ) in a heat led by Nigeria 's <unk> <unk> ( 11 @.@ 13 seconds ) and the Bahamas ' <unk> Ferguson @-@ <unk> ( 11 @.@ 17 seconds ) . Of the event 's 85 competitors , <unk> finished in 64th place . Therefore , <unk> did not advance to round two and beyond . \n", ' Key \n', " Note – <unk> given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only \n", ' Q \n', ' = <unk> for the next round \n', ' q = \n', ' <unk> for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target \n', ' NR \n', ' = National record \n', ' N / A = \n', ' Round not applicable for the event \n', ' <unk> = <unk> not required to compete in round \n', '', '', ' = View of the World from 9th Avenue = \n', '', " View of the World from 9th Avenue ( sometimes A <unk> New Yorker 's View of the World , A New Yorker 's View of the World or simply View of the World ) is a 1976 illustration by Saul <unk> that served as the cover of the March 29 , 1976 , edition of The New Yorker . The work presents the view from Manhattan of the rest of the world showing Manhattan as the center of the world . \n", ' View of the World has been parodied by Ted <unk> , Columbia Pictures , The New Yorker , The Economist and Mad Magazine , among others . The work has been imitated and printed without authorization in a variety of ways . The Columbia parody led to a ruling by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York in <unk> v. Columbia Pictures Industries , Inc. in favor of <unk> because of copyright violations by Columbia Pictures . The work is regarded as one of the greatest magazine covers of recent generations and is studied by art students around the world . \n', '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', ' Saul <unk> created 85 covers and <unk> internal drawings and illustrations for The New Yorker , including its March 29 , 1976 cover , titled " View of the World from 9th Avenue " . This is regarded as his most famous work . It is considered an example of unintentional fame : <unk> has noted that the type of fame that resulted from the work has diminished his significance to " the man who did that poster " . The work is sometimes referred to as A <unk> New Yorker \'s View of the World or A New Yorker \'s View of the World because it depicts a map of the world as seen by self @-@ absorbed New Yorkers . At one point The New Yorker applied for a copyright from the United States <unk> Office for the work . It assigned the copyright to <unk> and subsequently reproduced posters of the painting . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' The illustration is split in two parts , with the bottom half of the image showing Manhattan \'s 9th Avenue , 10th Avenue , and the Hudson River ( appropriately labeled ) , and the top half depicting the rest of the world . It is a westward view over 10th Avenue . The rest of the United States is the size of the three New York City blocks and is drawn as a <unk> bounded by North American neighbors Canada and Mexico , with a thin brown strip along the Hudson representing " Jersey " , the names of five cities ( Los Angeles ; Washington , D.C. ; Las Vegas ; Kansas City ; and Chicago ) and three states ( Texas , Utah , and Nebraska ) scattered among a few rocks for the United States beyond New Jersey , which is in bolder font than the rest of the country beyond the Hudson . Washington , D.C. is depicted as a remote location near Mexico . The Pacific Ocean , slightly wider than the Hudson , separates the United States from three flattened land masses labeled China , Japan and Russia . Notably , the image depicts the world with a back turned to Europe , which is absent from the painting . \n', ' The work is composed in ink , pencil , colored pencil , and <unk> on paper and measures 28 by 19 inches ( 71 cm × 48 cm ) . When exhibiting this work along with alternate versions and sketches , the University of Pennsylvania summarized the work as a " bird \'s @-@ eye view of the city from <unk> Avenue in a straight line westward , with space becoming ever more <unk> ... " They also described the work as a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek view of the world . New York interpreted the New York @-@ centric mind \'s view of the rest of the world as a set of outer <unk> as iconic . National Post journalist Robert <unk> described the perspective as one in which the entire world is a suburb of Manhattan . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' View of the World has been imitated without authorization in a variety of ways . The work has been imitated in <unk> format by numerous municipalities , states and nations . <unk> had stated that he could have retired on royalties from the many parodies made of the painting , had they been paid , a motivation for his eventual copyright lawsuit for the Moscow on the Hudson use . <unk> , writing in The National Post , noted that the metaphor of the world as a suburb of Manhattan was " understood and borrowed " by the whole world . Local artists , especially poster artists , presented similarly compelling depictions of their own provincial perceptions . <unk> demonstrated the prominence of this work by mentioning that a high school in suburban Ottawa made imitating View of the World an assignment in its graphic arts class . He also noted that the results of this assignment was a worldwide variety of global <unk> from which the students viewed the world . \n', " The illustration — <unk> depicting New Yorkers ' self @-@ image of their place in the world , or perhaps outsiders ' view of New Yorkers ' self @-@ image — inspired many similar works , including the poster for the 1984 film Moscow on the Hudson ; that movie poster led to a lawsuit , <unk> v. Columbia Pictures Industries , Inc . , <unk> F. <unk> . <unk> ( <unk> 1987 ) , which held that Columbia Pictures violated the copyright <unk> held on his work . \n", " On June 5 , 2003 , during the first term of George W. Bush 's presidency , Ted <unk> presented A View of the World from Pennsylvania Avenue as a <unk> of View of the World from 9th Avenue in a Universal Press Syndicate editorial cartoon . He replaced the letters representing The New Yorker with The <unk> . \n", ' The cover was later <unk> by Barry Blitt for the cover of The New Yorker on October 6 , 2008 . The cover featured Sarah Palin looking out of her window seeing only Alaska , with Russia in the far background . \n', ' The March 21 , 2009 The Economist included a story entitled " How China sees the World " that presents a parody that is also an homage to the original image , but depicting the viewpoint from Beijing \'s Chang \'an Avenue instead of Manhattan . A caption above the illustration reads " <unk> by Jon Berkeley ( with <unk> to <unk> and The New Yorker ) " . It accompanied an article that discussed the burgeoning Chinese economy at the time of the contemporary financial crisis . \n', " The October 1 , 2012 cover of Mad Magazine <unk> the problems with the September release of Apple Inc . ' s iOS 6 mobile operating system which included Apple Maps , a replacement for Google Maps . The work presents what View of the World might look like if one had relied upon the September 2012 version of Apple Maps to locate various landmarks . \n", '', ' = = Critical review = = \n', '', ' On October 17 , 2005 , American Society of Magazine Editors unveiled its list of the top 40 magazine covers of the prior 40 years and ranked View of the World from 9th Avenue in fourth place . The listing stated that the work " ... has come to represent Manhattan \'s <unk> perception of the country beyond the Hudson River . The cartoon showed the supposed limited mental geography of <unk> . " \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> / <unk> / ( Chinese : <unk> ; pinyin : <unk> ; <unk> <unk> h @-@ <unk> @-@ <unk> : <unk> @-@ to <unk> <unk> <unk> ) is a coastal town on the island of Borneo in the central region of <unk> , Malaysia . <unk> is located 610 kilometres ( 380 mi ) northeast of <unk> , 216 kilometres ( 134 mi ) northeast of <unk> , and 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) southwest of <unk> . With a population of 114 @,@ <unk> as of 2010 , <unk> is the capital of the <unk> District of the <unk> Division of <unk> , Malaysia . \n', ' The name of <unk> was derived from the local native language " <unk> <unk> " ( picking heads ) . <unk> was a small fishing village when <unk> James Brooke acquired it in 1861 . Brooke later built a fort there in 1862 . In 1867 , the first General Council meeting ( now <unk> State Legislative Assembly ) was convened in <unk> . It is the earliest state legislature system in Malaysia . The construction of the earliest airstrip in <unk> began in 1934 but was halted in 1938 due to financial difficulties . During World War II , the airstrip was heavily bombed by Allied forces . The British later rebuilt the airstrip , and it became fully operational in 1955 . The old airport was replaced by a new airport in 2002 . <unk> remained a fishing village until 1969 when oil and gas reserves were discovered off the coast . Since then , <unk> has become the centre of energy intensive industries such as a Malaysia <unk> plant , a Shell Middle <unk> Synthesis plant , and a <unk> combined cycle power plant . The economy has also expanded into oil palm and forest plantations , palm oil processing , wood @-@ waste processing , and cement manufacturing . The port of <unk> is the busiest in <unk> . The town is also a gateway to <unk> Industrial Park . \n', ' Among the tourist attractions in <unk> are <unk> National Park , <unk> Park , <unk> <unk> beach , <unk> village , <unk> <unk> Tong temple , <unk> mosque , Council <unk> monument , <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> markets . The Borneo International <unk> Festival is held annually in the town . \n', '', ' = = Etymology = = \n', '', ' During the 16th century , <unk> was named " River de <unk> " by Portuguese <unk> . There are several legends surrounding the name <unk> . During the Brooke dynasty , the indigenous <unk> people practised <unk> to maintain their social status in the community . They threw the heads into the <unk> River , after which the heads had to be collected from the river . The practice of collecting the heads was known as " <unk> <unk> " ( picking heads ) in the local native language . Another story relates that two <unk> warriors named <unk> and <unk> built houses along the river . They and their followers frequently carried out preservation of severed heads near a small river stream branching off from <unk> River because the river bank was flat and wide . Therefore , the small river stream was named " <unk> <unk> " river . <unk> who came to <unk> subsequently pronounced the name as " <unk> " , and later the name evolved into " <unk> " and , finally , " <unk> " . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Brooke dynasty = = = \n', '', ' James Brooke was appointed the White <unk> of <unk> ( now known as <unk> ) by the <unk> Empire in 1841 . In 1861 , the Sultanate of <unk> ceded the <unk> region to Brooke . <unk> was a small settlement at that time . A wooden fort named Fort <unk> was built in the village , named after Sir Henry <unk> , who was a close friend of the <unk> James and Charles Brooke . Sir Henry <unk> was responsible for crushing the <unk> piracy in the <unk> between 1840 and 1850 . Meanwhile , Charles Brooke was a nephew of James Brooke and would later become the latter \'s successor as the second <unk> of <unk> . <unk> <unk> , an Italian botanist , visited <unk> in 1867 . On 4 August , he started his journey on a gunboat named " <unk> " , which was to send $ 6 @,@ 000 to <unk> for concessions being made to James Brooke in the <unk> and <unk> regions . He went to <unk> before coming back to <unk> . He dropped off at <unk> River on 13 August 1867 . His observations of the village were recorded as follows : \n', ' The fort of <unk> which was built entirely of wood , was in somewhat ruinous condition . It stood nearly on the sea @-@ shore , and just behind it , at a distance of few paces , the <unk> forests commenced ... Some <unk> had settled at the vicinity of the fort and had built a small <unk> ; but the village is chiefly formed by the houses of the <unk> beyond the Chinese <unk> ( village ) . These <unk> used to live further up the river , but since the construction of the fort , and the installation of an officer of the <unk> near the mouth of the river , they came to settle near the sea – a thing they would never have <unk> to do in former days for fear of the attacks of the <unk> pirates and <unk> pirates . \n', ' The houses of the <unk> people were built in rows on both sides of the <unk> River , mostly furnished by <unk> and <unk> <unk> . Each house had its own shed projection into the entrance of the river , which was used for the processing of <unk> <unk> . On 8 September 1867 , the first <unk> General Council meeting ( now <unk> State Legislative Assembly ) took place here . It was made up of 21 elected local community members ( five British officers and 16 Malay and <unk> local chiefs ) . The Council was formed by Raja <unk> Charles Brooke under orders from <unk> James Brooke . The Council is the oldest state legislative assembly in Malaysia . \n', '', ' = = = Japanese occupation = = = \n', '', ' During World War II , <unk> Charles <unk> Brooke ordered the construction of airstrips in <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . Construction of the <unk> airstrip was started in 1934 under the direction of C. W. Bailey , a Works and Building Inspector for the British Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . All the airstrips were completed except for the <unk> airstrip , where construction was discontinued in October 1938 due to financial reasons . Japanese forces landed in <unk> on 16 December 1941 . <unk> fell into Japanese hands when they conquered <unk> on 24 December 1941 . When the Japanese invaded <unk> , Charles <unk> Brooke already left for Sydney ( Australia ) before the attack while his officers were captured by the Japanese and interned at the <unk> <unk> camp . During the Japanese occupation , the Japanese used the airstrip for military purposes . However , the airstrip was heavily bombed by Allied forces . The British began reconstruction of the airstrip after the war ; during the project many <unk> bombs were unearthed . \n', ' On 5 September 1942 , Japanese Field Marshal Prince <unk> ( <unk> ) boarded a plane from <unk> to <unk> to <unk> an airport that bears his name . However , he never arrived . One month later , the plane was found to have crashed off the coast of <unk> <unk> , <unk> . The cause of the plane crash was not known . The Japanese later set up a wooden pole memorial made up of <unk> wood in <unk> . The wooden pole was later taken back to Japan by the family of Prince <unk> . \n', ' Chinese sawmill owners at <unk> and <unk> were instructed by the Japanese to produce timber for repairs at oil fields and ship building . During the Japanese occupation , sawmills at <unk> produced a total of 4 @,@ 000 tons of <unk> timber . \n', '', ' = = = Post @-@ war period = = = \n', '', ' In the 1950s , major economic activities in <unk> were the timber extraction industry , fishing , and <unk> processing . In the 1960s , <unk> was still a small fishing village , with a population of 5 @,@ 000 . No roads were constructed in <unk> until 1969 when the first <unk> road was built to connect <unk> to <unk> . The first bus that serviced the <unk> – <unk> route was owned by <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) . The <unk> bus line was an initiative by the Malaysian federal government to provide public transportation for the people . The <unk> villagers paid the bus driver with " vegetables , chickens , bamboo shoots , and other items " . Before 1960 , <unk> was connected to <unk> by sea through a ship named " <unk> <unk> " . After 1960 , the ship " <unk> <unk> " was added to the route . It took around 36 to 48 hours to reach <unk> from <unk> , depending on the sea conditions . Due to lack of food supplies from <unk> , the villagers had to make do with limited food , and several villagers resorted to hunting in the <unk> to supplement the food supply . \n', ' In 1960 there were only three primary schools in <unk> . These schools provided classes until Primary 3 level . There were no secondary schools . <unk> could pursue their secondary school studies at either <unk> or <unk> by using small boats as there were no roads connecting <unk> to either <unk> or <unk> . <unk> Government Secondary School was opened in 1964 . In 1967 <unk> celebrated the first 100 years of the Council <unk> meeting ( <unk> State Legislative Assembly ) . A stone monument was built in front of a government rice <unk> to commemorate the event . <unk> was a sub @-@ district of <unk> Division in the 1970s . The sub @-@ district was upgraded into a district in 1987 . \n', '', ' = = = Discovery of oil and gas reserves = = = \n', '', ' Large reserves of natural gas were discovered off the coast of <unk> in 1969 . Following this , a feasibility study was done in 1975 , and <unk> <unk> was found to be a suitable site for a deep @-@ water port . On 14 June 1978 , Malaysia <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> <unk> ) was established by <unk> , a Malaysian national oil and gas company for <unk> Natural Gas ( <unk> ) processing at <unk> . On 8 July 1978 , the <unk> Development Authority ( <unk> ) was established by the <unk> state government for infrastructure development and to promote industrial investment in the area . On 15 August 1981 , the <unk> Port Authority was established at <unk> <unk> , starting operation on 1 January 1983 . Since the establishment of <unk> Corridor of <unk> Energy ( <unk> ) in 2008 , <unk> become the gateway to <unk> Industrial Park , which is located 62 kilometres ( 39 mi ) away from <unk> . The industrial park is a centre of heavy , energy @-@ intensive industry . Among the companies that started their operations in the industrial park are <unk> Malaysia <unk> <unk> , Press Metal <unk> <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> . \n', ' Rural – urban migration is significant in <unk> because of greater job availability in the town . Since 2007 , new residents have started several <unk> areas in <unk> due to inability to find affordable housing , around <unk> Industrial estate and <unk> <unk> . To address the issue , several low @-@ cost housing projects were initiated by <unk> and <unk> state government to relocate the squatters . The state government planned to achieve zero squatters status by the year <unk> . <unk> also saw the rise in the number of residential and commercial properties such as double @-@ <unk> terraced houses , terraced <unk> , <unk> Commercial Centre , and Time Square <unk> Mall . Residential properties has shown a 20 % price increase from 2011 to 2013 . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' <unk> is represented by <unk> parliamentary seat ( P. 217 ) in the Parliament of Malaysia . The town is also represented by three state assembly seats – <unk> , <unk> ( later was split by two state assembly namely <unk> <unk> and <unk> ) , and <unk> – in the <unk> State Legislative Assembly . \n', '', ' = = = Local authorities = = = \n', '', ' Since 1978 the town of <unk> has been administered by the <unk> Development Authority ( <unk> ) , with offices located along <unk> <unk> <unk> . The town is located within the boundary of <unk> District , with a population of 183 @,@ 402 and a total area of 7 @,@ 220 @.@ 40 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 787 @.@ 81 sq mi ) . <unk> Division was formerly a <unk> District under the jurisdiction of <unk> Division . The former <unk> District was upgraded to <unk> Division on 1 January 1987 . At the same time , <unk> sub @-@ district was upgraded to the present @-@ day <unk> District . Both the <unk> <unk> and District offices are located inside <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> Street , <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Geography = = \n', '', ' <unk> is located 610 kilometres ( 380 mi ) northeast of <unk> 216 kilometres ( 134 mi ) northeast of <unk> , and 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) southwest of <unk> . <unk> is located near the mouth of the <unk> River , in the coastal region of central <unk> . Geology of the coastal area was formed during the Pleistocene period ; silt , clay , and gravel can be found here . Geological formation from the <unk> period is found in the inland area , which contains limestone , <unk> , and sandstone . The soil is generally soft . \n', '', ' = = = Climate = = = \n', '', " There are two monsoon seasons in the <unk> : the northeast <unk> ( November to March ) and the southwest <unk> ( May to September ) . The calm period between these two <unk> is known as the transitional period . In the coastal region , maximum rainfall occurs in the month of January , while minimal rainfall occurs from the period June to August . Rainfall is more evenly distributed in the inland areas . The annual rainfall of the <unk> region is about 3 @,@ 750 mm ( 148 in ) annually . The mean daily hours of sunshine at <unk> is about 5 @.@ 0 to 5 @.@ 5 hours . <unk> receives on average 14 to 15 <unk> / m2 of radiation throughout the year . <unk> 's relative humidity is 85 % . \n", '', ' = = Demographics = = \n', '', " The growth of <unk> 's population is shown below : \n", ' The issue of gangsters in <unk> was first raised in 2007 by the member of parliament ( MP ) for <unk> . The gangsters may have run businesses related to illegal logging , controlling the prices of diesel , eggs , fertiliser and gas cylinders . <unk> police have been <unk> down on gangster activities in the town . <unk> businessmen who seek cheap labour have caused a rise in the number of illegal immigrants in <unk> . The number may have reached 50 @,@ 000 in 2009 . <unk> immigration department has performed several operations to <unk> illegal immigrants back to their home country . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' As of the 2010 Malaysian census , the population of the town of <unk> is 114 @,@ <unk> . Indigenous people accounted for the largest proportion of the town population ( 61 @.@ 2 % , 69 @,@ <unk> ) , followed by Chinese ( 25 @.@ 0 % , 28 @,@ 512 ) , Non @-@ <unk> ( 13 @.@ 1 % , 14 @,@ <unk> ) , and Indians ( 0 @.@ 28 % , 319 ) . Among the indigenous groups , there are <unk> ( 32 @,@ <unk> ) , Malay ( 14 @,@ <unk> ) , <unk> ( 14 @,@ 179 ) , <unk> ( 1 @,@ <unk> ) , and other indigenous tribes ( 6 @,@ <unk> ) . According to government sources , there are <unk> <unk> <unk> in the <unk> District . The <unk> moved into <unk> and <unk> basins in the mid @-@ 19th and early 20th century with permission of the Brooke government . Other indigenous tribes that form the minority are <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . The Chinese in <unk> are mainly composed of dialect groups such as <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . The Chinese have been living in the town of <unk> since the era of <unk> Empire . Later , <unk> Chinese from <unk> moved in , dominating the timber and plantation businesses in <unk> . There is also a large number of foreigners working there . Most of them come from Britain , Australia , the Netherlands , Germany , South Africa , New Zealand , Japan , China , the United States , and Indonesia . \n', '', ' = = = Languages = = = \n', '', ' While Malay is the official language of <unk> ; English is widely spoken there . Local ethnic languages and Chinese dialects are spoken by the respective ethnic groups . Standard Chinese is also spoken by ethnic Chinese in <unk> . <unk> is spoken by communities living along the <unk> River , with 4 @,@ 200 native speakers . These speakers are now recognised as part of the <unk> ethnic group , where their main language is Malay . <unk> is classified as one of the endangered languages in <unk> because of the isolated usage of the language in a small community . \n', '', ' = = = Religion = = = \n', '', ' The majority of the <unk> population are adherents of Christian denominations due to Christian missionaries operating during the Brooke dynasty ; followed by Islam , Buddhism , and Hinduism . Among the notable places of worship in <unk> are the <unk> Mosque ( <unk> <unk> ) , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> Kong Temple , <unk> <unk> Methodist Church , and St. Thomas Church . The respective religious groups are free to hold processions in the town . \n', '', ' = = Economy = = \n', '', ' There are five industrial estates in <unk> . They are : <unk> Industrial Estate ( for wood @-@ based industries ) , <unk> Industries Estate ( wood @-@ based industries ) , <unk> Industrial Area ( for medium and light industries ) , <unk> Light Industrial Estate ( medium and light industries ) , and <unk> Light Industrial Estate ( light industry ) . \n', '', ' = = = Oil and gas = = = \n', '', ' Malaysia <unk> is a <unk> Natural Gas ( <unk> ) manufacturing complex located in <unk> that currently contains eight <unk> trains with a ninth one currently under construction . The complex was built by the Malaysian national oil and gas company , <unk> . The manufacturing complex has a production capacity of 25 @.@ 7 million tonnes per annum . <unk> is also planning to open <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) offshore <unk> , which is used specifically to harvest natural gas from small and isolated gas fields . Transportation of natural gas from the <unk> state of <unk> , <unk> , to the <unk> complex at <unk> is facilitated by a 512 @-@ kilometre ( <unk> mi ) pipeline known as the " <unk> <unk> Gas <unk> " . Currently , 45 % of Malaysian natural gas is found at Central <unk> off the coast of <unk> . The largest <unk> of Malaysia <unk> productions are Japan ( 62 % ) , Korea ( 17 % ) , Taiwan ( 12 % ) , and China ( 9 % ) . \n', " The <unk> Shell <unk> Plant ( <unk> ) , formerly known as <unk> <unk> Oil Terminal ( <unk> ) , was established in 1979 . It consists of three crude oil storage tanks , each with a capacity of 410 @,@ 000 barrels . It has three major areas of operation : <unk> Oil Operations , <unk> <unk> , and Gas Sales Facilities . Royal Dutch Shell started to establish the world 's first Shell Middle <unk> Synthesis plant ( Shell MDS ) in 1993 . It is also known as <unk> Gas @-@ To @-@ Liquid plant ( <unk> <unk> ) . The plant has a production capacity of 14 @,@ 770 barrels per day with a total investment of over US $ 1 billion as of the year 2010 . The plant is staffed with 380 people , of whom 93 % are <unk> , with 80 % of the staff coming from <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = Wood @-@ based industries and plantations = = = \n', '', ' Since the opening up of the <unk> – <unk> road in the 1970s , large @-@ scale plantations of oil palm and <unk> has been developed in rural areas of <unk> Division . Currently , there are 57 @,@ 740 hectares ( <unk> @.@ 4 km2 ( 223 sq mi ) ) of oil palm , 2 @,@ 000 hectares ( 200 km2 ( 77 sq mi ) ) of <unk> , and 815 hectares ( 8 @.@ 15 km2 ( 3 sq mi ) ) of <unk> plantations . \n', ' The first <unk> palm oil refinery , <unk> <unk> Oil <unk> <unk> , was established in June 1991 . <unk> currently has four palm oil refineries : <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( operated under <unk> Group , a subsidiary of <unk> International ) , <unk> Darby <unk> <unk> Oil <unk> <unk> , <unk> Palm Oil <unk> <unk> <unk> , and <unk> Oil Palm <unk> . However , as of 2015 , <unk> no longer <unk> raw palm oil produced from cleared forests and peat swamps in <unk> because of environmental concerns . \n', ' The <unk> Division has been designated as a <unk> <unk> Zone ( <unk> ) by the <unk> state government since 1998 . As of 30 June 2011 , a total of 124 @,@ 618 hectares ( 1 @,@ <unk> @.@ 18 km2 ( <unk> sq mi ) ) has been planted with <unk> trees . Other trees that are planned for plantations are <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and rubber trees . <unk> <unk> Forest <unk> <unk> , a company wholly owned by the <unk> state government , has been granted a license to <unk> forests for 60 years . However , the company has been suffering financial losses from 2009 to 2011 . \n', ' There are three mills in <unk> that process wood @-@ waste products . Two are <unk> @-@ density <unk> ( <unk> ) plants and the third is a charcoal <unk> plant , with a total installed capacity of <unk> @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 8 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 cu ft ) per year . <unk> plants <unk> wood waste purchased from sawmills and <unk> mills in the <unk> area and occasionally from the <unk> <unk> timber processing zone located at the mouth of the <unk> River . <unk> <unk> , which are required to hold wood dust together , constituted 20 % of the total production cost of the wood panel products . <unk> plants in <unk> are operated by <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> , which was founded on 15 February 1994 . The <unk> plant is operated by <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> . A glue / <unk> factory in <unk> is owned by <unk> <unk> & Chemicals <unk> <unk> . It produces <unk> <unk> resin and <unk> <unk> resin for <unk> and <unk> manufacturing at <unk> Industrial Estate . <unk> <unk> is also produced to supply <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) plant . \n', '', ' = = = Others = = = \n', '', ' The <unk> Port Authority was established in 1981 . It started port operation in 1983 at <unk> <unk> . Following a <unk> exercise , <unk> Port <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) was founded on 23 December 1992 and commenced operation on 1 January 1993 . <unk> is currently responsible for regulatory exercises and security of the port . Meanwhile , <unk> is responsible for cargo handling at the <unk> International <unk> Terminal ( <unk> ) . The port also provides Vessel traffic service to shipping vessels . The annual total cargo <unk> is 45 @.@ 4 million tonnes , consisting of 58 % <unk> and 42 % non @-@ <unk> products . As of 31 December 2014 , it generated a total revenue of <unk> <unk> @.@ 3 million per year . <unk> Port is the busiest port in <unk> . \n', ' The <unk> <unk> <unk> plant is the <unk> ammonia and <unk> plant operated by <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , which is partly owned by <unk> . The company was formed on 6 December 1980 . The plant started operation on 1 October 1985 . It is also one of the largest <unk> <unk> plants in Asia . It is a joint venture by five <unk> countries : Malaysia ( 63 @.@ 5 % shares ) , Thailand ( 13 % ) , Indonesia ( 13 % ) , the Philippines ( 9 @.@ 5 % ) , and Singapore ( 1 % ) . \n', ' <unk> Mata <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , one of the largest publicly traded companies in <unk> , set up a cement plant in <unk> at <unk> Industrial Estate . The plant , manned by 40 people , produces ordinary Portland cement and Portland blast <unk> cement . It currently has a combined production capacity of 2 @.@ 75 million <unk> ( million tonnes ) . \n', ' The <unk> combined cycle power plant was started in early 2010 with a capacity of 317 megawatts . The power plant is registered under the United Nations Clean Development Management ( <unk> ) scheme as of 18 September 2010 . The plant is built to ensure efficient use of energy and reduce green house gas emissions . It is the first <unk> power plant in Malaysia , currently operated by <unk> Power Generation <unk> <unk> ( <unk> ) , a wholly owned subsidiary of <unk> Energy . \n', '', ' = = Transportation = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Land = = = \n', '', ' All roads in <unk> are maintained by the <unk> Development Authority ( <unk> ) . <unk> is connected to <unk> and <unk> by the Pan Borneo Highway . <unk> is also connected to <unk> and <unk> Industrial Park . <unk> Bridge crosses the <unk> River . It is the second bridge in Malaysia built using the incremental launch method . <unk> Road in <unk> is named after a friend of James Brooke , Sir Henry <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = = Public transportation = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> has a long @-@ distance bus station , located at <unk> Jaya , 5 km ( 3 mi ) northeast of the town centre . Among the areas served by the bus station are : <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> , Indonesia . The bus companies that serve the station are the <unk> <unk> <unk> . <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> bus lines . There are also buses that serve the town area . Taxi service is also available . \n', '', ' = = = Air = = = \n', '', ' The old <unk> airport was built in 1955 in the town centre . It once held the Guinness World Record of nearest airport to town . On 19 December 2002 , the airport was replaced by a new airport , which is located 23 km ( 14 mi ) away from the town centre . The surroundings of the old airport were developed into commercial and residential projects while the runaway is reserved for <unk> International <unk> Festival . The new airport has a runway measuring 2 @,@ <unk> m ( 9 @,@ 006 ft ) , capable of handling planes as large as the Airbus <unk> . The airport currently serves three major airlines : Malaysia Airlines ( <unk> ) , Air Asia , and <unk> , connecting to domestic destinations such as : <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , Kuala <unk> , and <unk> <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Water = = = \n', '', ' There is a <unk> terminal at <unk> that serves the rural areas of <unk> Division . Among the destinations that can be reached by express boat from <unk> are : <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Other utilities = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Courts of law and legal enforcement = = = \n', '', ' The current court complex is located at <unk> <unk> Road . It comprises the High Court , the Sessions Court , and the <unk> Court . <unk> also has <unk> <unk> Court , located at <unk> <unk> , whose area of jurisdiction covers <unk> District and <unk> districts . The <unk> central police station is located at <unk> Hussein <unk> Road , with other police stations located at <unk> <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . There is also a central prison in <unk> , which doubles as a <unk> centre . \n', '', ' = = = Healthcare = = = \n', '', ' <unk> Hospital started operation in 1968 . It is located at <unk> Road , 12 km ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) from the town centre . Following renovations completed on 21 May 2000 , the hospital is now equipped with 200 beds . As of 2011 , the hospital provides <unk> services in seven medical disciplines . <unk> also has one <unk> , <unk> <unk> . There are two private hospitals in <unk> : Columbia Asia Hospital and <unk> Medical Centre . \n', '', ' = = = Education = = = \n', '', " There are about 50 primary and eight secondary schools in <unk> . All the schools under the National Education System are managed by the <unk> District Education Office . The oldest primary schools in <unk> are St Anthony 's Primary School ( Roman Catholic Mission School ) , Chung <unk> Primary School , and the <unk> <unk> <unk> Primary School , which were established in the early 1960s . The <unk> Government Secondary School was built in 1964 . It is now known as <unk> <unk> , the oldest secondary school in the town . <unk> also has one Chinese independent school , Kai Dee Middle School ( <unk> ) . The Shell Oil Company established the <unk> International School in 1982 to meet the primary education needs of Shell employees ' children . The school provides English National Curriculum ( <unk> ) for literacy and <unk> and International Primary Curriculum ( IPC ) for other subjects . \n", " <unk> <unk> <unk> Campus was started as the National <unk> Training Centre , <unk> , in 1974 . The oldest campus in <unk> , it was relocated to <unk> in 1987 as a branch campus of the <unk> <unk> Malaysia ( <unk> ) . The campus was closed down in 1992 before reopening in 2001 as <unk> <unk> Malaysia ( <unk> ) . During this period of closure , the campus was used as the site for <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( <unk> Science Teachers ' Training College ) from 1994 to July 1999 when it was moved to <unk> <unk> as <unk> <unk> Guru <unk> <unk> Abdul <unk> ( <unk> Abdul <unk> Teachers ' Training Institute Campus ) . The <unk> campus is currently located 13 km ( 8 mi ) away from the town centre , occupying 715 ha ( 1 @,@ 767 acres ) , which can accommodate up to 2 @,@ 200 students . This branch campus currently has only one faculty , the Faculty of Agriculture and Food Sciences , consisting of five academic departments . In 2015 <unk> was ranked 41st in the <unk> @-@ <unk> World University rankings . <unk> College , established in November 1999 , offers courses in business , information technology , language , and engineering . \n", ' There is also a technical school located 15 km ( 9 mi ) away from the town , near <unk> <unk> , occupying 20 ha ( 49 acres ) of land . The school was built in 1982 with a maximum capacity of 900 students . Among the courses offered are : automotive , mechanical and civil engineering , commerce , and fashion . Gulf Golden International Flying Academy ( <unk> ) , the first and only flying academy in <unk> , was closed in 2012 due to financial difficulties . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' The first public library in <unk> was built in 1971 by <unk> District Council ( <unk> ) . In 1988 the library was demolished to make way for car parks . Books from the library were moved into the former <unk> building . On 29 May 2000 , the <unk> Development Authority ( <unk> ) public library was built near the <unk> Civic Centre , which is 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the town . The public library has three branches : at <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Culture and leisure = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> and recreational spots = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = Cultural = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> ( <unk> village ) is a <unk> fishing village in <unk> located near <unk> River . Among the daily activities in this village are <unk> processing , fish drying , and the manufacturing of <unk> , <unk> ( salted shrimp ) , <unk> ( <unk> headgear ) , and <unk> ( a type of food cover ) . <unk> <unk> Tong temple is located at <unk> <unk> Sultan <unk> . It has a structural design with a rock garden courtyard , man @-@ made waterfall , and dragon fencing . <unk> mosque , meaning " <unk> to God " , has a man @-@ made waterfall , a fountain , and a landscape planted with flowers . The Borneo International <unk> Festival has been held yearly since 2005 at the old <unk> airport runway . It usually lasts for four to five days in September . \n', '', ' = = = = Historical = = = = \n', '', ' In 1987 a clock tower and a fountain were erected at Council <unk> Monument . A centenary stone that was erected in 1967 to commemorate the event is kept under the clock tower . The <unk> <unk> <unk> Kong temple ( near <unk> <unk> ) is believed to have been built in the 1890s to purge the town from evil spirits . The temple survived World War II , and was rebuilt after the discovery of oil and gas reserves offshore . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> and conservation areas = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> National Park is located 30 km ( 19 mi ) northeast of the town . The park was <unk> in 1976 , covering an area of 8 @,@ 996 ha ( 22 @,@ 230 acres ) ( 89 @.@ 96 km2 ( 35 sq mi ) with sandy beaches , rocky <unk> , jungle streams , and forests . Other national parks that can be accessed along the <unk> – <unk> road are the <unk> Hills National Park and <unk> National Park . \n', ' <unk> <unk> beach ( <unk> beach ) is located 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) from the town centre . Meanwhile , <unk> <unk> ( <unk> Park ) is located 4 km ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the town centre . The park has a <unk> <unk> , a butterfly garden , and a mini @-@ zoo . \n', '', ' = = = = Other attractions = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> Tower is an observation tower located at <unk> <unk> . It offers a view of the <unk> oil and gas facilities shortly after nightfall . <unk> <unk> is a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 2 mi ) <unk> along the <unk> coastline with the <unk> River mouth as its focal point . It has the observation points offering sunset views . There is also an 18 @-@ hole golf course at <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' There are several shopping malls in <unk> : <unk> Mall , City Point , <unk> <unk> <unk> Stores , Farley shopping complex , Sing <unk> <unk> , and MDS @-@ Mart . Time Square Mall is currently under development in <unk> , with <unk> as the anchor tenant . \n', ' <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> are the two main markets in the town . Both places have a unique <unk> @-@ shaped roof that <unk> the traditional <unk> headgear named <unk> . <unk> <unk> offers items ranging from jungle produce to native home @-@ made <unk> such as <unk> . Meanwhile , <unk> <unk> houses both wet market and dry market under one roof , providing fresh vegetables , fruits , fish , and dairy products . The first floor of <unk> <unk> offers a variety of fast food such as <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> <unk> . The <unk> night market is located on <unk> <unk> road . There are over 150 <unk> selling a variety of items such as garments , electric goods , vegetables , fruits , food and drinks . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> Battalion = \n', '', ' The <unk> Battalion ( Croatian : <unk> <unk> ) was a special forces unit of the Croatian National Guard ( <unk> <unk> garde – <unk> ) and later of the Croatian Army ( <unk> <unk> – <unk> ) established in <unk> on 18 May 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The unit drew personnel from the special police forces and a former French Foreign Legion troops serving as its core . The battalion was set up and initially commanded by Ante <unk> , while Major <unk> <unk> took over as the commanding officer in August . \n', " The <unk> Battalion trained volunteer troops in Vukovar in June 1991 before it saw action in <unk> <unk> , the Battle of <unk> and near <unk> in 1991 . By the end of 1991 , the unit 's personnel were tasked with setting up an additional special forces unit of the <unk> . The next year its elements took part in the Battle of <unk> and Operation Tiger aimed at lifting the Siege of Dubrovnik . It also and helped develop and train the Croatian Defence Council ( <unk> <unk> <unk> – <unk> ) , setting up a training camp in <unk> . In 1993 , the battalion took part in Operation <unk> . In February 1994 , the <unk> Battalion was amalgamated with several other <unk> special forces units into the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , a component of the 1st Croatian Guards Corps ( 1 @.@ <unk> <unk> <unk> ) . \n", '', ' = = Background = = \n', '', " In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Croatian Serbs worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( <unk> <unk> <unk> – <unk> ) believed Croatia would use the Croatian Territorial Defence Force 's ( <unk> <unk> – <unk> ) equipment to build its own army and confront the <unk> itself . In order to minimize the expected resistance , the <unk> confiscated the <unk> weapons . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs . \n", ' In the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , Croatia doubled the size of its police force to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police that were deployed in 12 battalions , adopting military organisation . In addition there were 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police . The reserve police were set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons needed to arm many of the troops . \n', " Preparations to set up the Croatian National Guard ( <unk> <unk> garde – <unk> ) began on 12 April 1991 . Establishment of the <unk> as a police force with military capabilities was thought necessary by the Croatian authorities following armed clashes in <unk> and at <unk> Lakes in March and due to the possibility of further confrontation with the <unk> . The <unk> , formally established on 23 April , was tasked with protection of the constitutional order , maintenance of public order , anti @-@ terrorist operations , protection of Croatia 's borders , territory , coast and territorial waters , as well as the protection of high @-@ value structures and high @-@ profile persons . \n", '', ' = = Service = = \n', '', ' On 18 May 1991 , the <unk> Battalion was established as a special forces unit of the <unk> . The core of the unit consisted of 27 volunteers drawn from the <unk> Special Police Unit ( <unk> ) . Initially , it relied on former French Foreign Legion troops . The most senior among the former <unk> was Ante <unk> , previously a <unk> @-@ <unk> ( non @-@ commissioned officer – <unk> ) in the 4th Foreign Regiment . In consequence , <unk> was tasked with setting up the unit as its initial commander . Major <unk> <unk> , likewise a former French Foreign Legion member , was assigned the battalions deputy commander . The unit was based in the village of <unk> in the region of <unk> <unk> , on the grounds of the former " Josip <unk> Tito " political school . The site , adjacent to the border of Slovenia , was selected to be inaccessible to Yugoslav Air Force raids without violation of <unk> or possibly Austrian airspace . In June 1991 , the <unk> <unk> was transferred to <unk> Peak north of Zagreb leaving <unk> base to the <unk> Battalion , as well as the second special forces unit , the <unk> Battalion . \n', ' The <unk> Battalion was deployed for the first time on 15 June . It was stationed in Vukovar , tasked with preparation of city defences and organisation of volunteer troops . In August , <unk> took over command of the battalion from <unk> . The same month , the <unk> Battalion was deployed to the <unk> , where it pushed the Croatian Serb forces out of the town of <unk> <unk> . In September , the battalion was deployed to <unk> , where it took part in battle to control <unk> against the <unk> . Troops assigned to the battalion captured <unk> barracks in <unk> . During combat in <unk> , 30 troops of the <unk> Battalion , assisted by <unk> <unk> , captured <unk> Major General <unk> <unk> , along with three armoured personnel carriers ( <unk> ) and 32 soldiers . The unit was deployed to <unk> on 28 October , tasked with <unk> <unk> from the <unk> . After the deployment to <unk> , a part of the unit personnel left to Bosnia and Herzegovina anticipating further conflict there , while the remainder of the unit returned to <unk> . The <unk> was renamed the Croatian Army ( <unk> <unk> – <unk> ) on 3 November 1991 . In late 1991 , personnel of the <unk> Battalion set up another special forces unit of the <unk> — the <unk> <unk> Battalion based in <unk> . \n', ' In 1992 , elements of the <unk> Battalion took part in the Battle of <unk> , before setting up a training camp in the town of <unk> . There the battalion personnel assisted in setting up and trained the Croatian Defence Council ( <unk> <unk> <unk> – <unk> ) . Later that year , elements of the battalion took part in Operation Tiger — aimed at lifting of the Siege of Dubrovnik . In 1993 , elements of the <unk> Battalion took part in Operation <unk> , fighting in the area of <unk> . The Central Intelligence Agency assessed the <unk> Battalion as one of the best units of the <unk> . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' On 25 February 1994 , the <unk> Battalion was amalgamated with parts of other special forces units of the <unk> : <unk> Battalion , Ban <unk> Battalion , <unk> <unk> Battalion , <unk> <unk> Battalion and part of 8th Light Assault Brigade forming the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , a component of the 1st Croatian Guards Corps ( 1 @.@ <unk> <unk> <unk> ) , directly subordinated to the Ministry of Defence rather than the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia . \n', '', '', " = <unk> <unk> But They Don 't Go Down = \n", '', ' " <unk> <unk> But They Don \'t Go Down " is the nineteenth and penultimate episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the <unk> episode overall . Written by Phil <unk> and directed by Jason Bloom , the episode premiered on The CW on May 22 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while <unk> as a private detective . \n', " In this episode , Weevil ( Francis <unk> ) enlists Veronica 's help in proving his innocence when he is implicated in creating fake student <unk> . Meanwhile , Veronica and Piz ( Chris Lowell ) come to terms with Veronica 's FBI internship , and a sex tape of this couple is released on the internet . Logan ( Jason <unk> ) beats up Piz , thinking that he posted it . In addition , Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) and <unk> ( Ken Marino ) debate on Piz 's radio show about the upcoming Sheriff 's election in which they are running against each other . \n", ' " <unk> <unk> But They Don \'t Go Down " features the reappearance of Weevil after an absence of five episodes ; during filming of the third season , <unk> was undergoing medical treatment . Series creator Rob Thomas pointed out Logan and Piz \'s fight scene as one of the highlights of the episode and the season . In its original broadcast , the episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics , with many praising the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week . \n', '', ' = = Synopsis = = \n', '', ' In a <unk> line , Veronica and Mac ( Tina <unk> ) discuss her relationship with Piz and what her FBI internship will mean for them . They then see someone getting arrested by the campus police for a fake <unk> card . Weevil <unk> himself , but finds himself unable to receive adequate benefits . Veronica gets Piz to accept her leaving for the internship . At the Sheriff ’ s station , Weevil is called out by several students as being the one who gave them the fake cards . Weevil is put in the jail cell , but he tells Veronica that he think they targeted him after he was showcased in the criminology class . She investigates several of the owners of the student <unk> , who do seem genuine in accusing Weevil . Weevil gets bail , but Keith informs him that a student <unk> printing machine was found in the locker next to Weevil ’ s . Veronica and Wallace speak to a mechanical engineering professor , who says that it would be impossible for Weevil to be the <unk> . Piz invites Keith to appear on his show in an election special before Keith informs Veronica that Weevil ’ s <unk> were found all over the investigation . \n', ' Keith and <unk> debate on Piz ’ s radio show , and <unk> <unk> some support about his <unk> <unk> drinking policy . Wallace notices someone following him , and the student wants to recruit him for a secret society . <unk> insults Keith ’ s handling of his home life , and Veronica hits him on the head lightly . She helps Weevil <unk> his steps and notices one of her criminology classmates , Jenny ( Dianna Agron ) , involved with one of Weevil ’ s clients . Veronica <unk> that Jenny and her circle of friends are responsible for creating the fake student <unk> , <unk> them , and <unk> Weevil . Logan and Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) go surfing , and they run into Veronica , Piz , and Mac helping Wallace ( Percy <unk> III ) with his final project for a class . Veronica learns that one of Jenny ’ s group lives in the same town in Georgia where the student <unk> machines are made . \n', ' Veronica is called into a room in the library by Jenny ’ s group , who try to <unk> her into not turning them in to the <unk> police . However , she denies and records their conversation as further proof . They are hiding a third <unk> machine , and Veronica tells Weevil to go and find it . Dick shows Logan a sex tape of Piz and Veronica that has been circulating in an email . Because Logan thinks Piz posted the tape , he attacks Piz and hits him incessantly . Weevil does have a student <unk> machine , and Logan walks into Mars Investigations with Piz ’ s blood on him . \n', '', ' = = Production = = \n', '', ' " <unk> <unk> But They Don \'t Go Down " was written by Phil <unk> and directed by Jason Bloom , marking <unk> \'s fifteenth and final writing credit and Bloom \'s fourth and final directing credit for Veronica Mars , after " Green @-@ Eyed Monster " , " Nevermind the <unk> " , and " Charlie Don \'t Surf " . The episode features the final appearance of Dianna Agron , famous for her role as Quinn <unk> on Glee , as Jenny <unk> , Veronica ’ s classmate . Agron had previously appeared in the episode “ President Evil ” . The episode prominently features Weevil ( Francis <unk> ) , who appears after a five episode hiatus . During the third season , <unk> was struggling with a medical condition , and the medication he took for this illness caused his face and neck to swell and break out with <unk> . \n', ' Series creator Rob Thomas included the scene in which Logan attacks Piz on his list of highlights from the third season . When Thomas first viewed the scene with his wife , she emitted an audible <unk> when she saw Logan walking through the <unk> towards Piz , anticipating the fight that was about to come . Thomas thought that most fight scenes on the show were not well @-@ done , as they are filmed quickly and without a second unit . However , he was pleased with the final cut , stating that there was only one punch that he thought looked fake . \n', '', ' = = Reception = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Ratings = = = \n', '', " In its original broadcast , “ <unk> <unk> But They Don ’ t Go Down ” received 1 @.@ 78 million viewers , ranking 77th of 85 in the weekly rankings . This was a decrease from the previous episode , “ I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer ” , which garnered 2 @.@ 10 million <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = Reviews = = = \n', '', ' Eric Goldman , writing for IGN , graded the episode a 9 @.@ 0 out of 10 , indicating that it was “ amazing ” . His very positive review focused on the ambiguous nature of the main plot and the subplots of Dick and Logan . He praised the presence of the majority of the main cast members , also stating that Dick ’ s reaction to dealing with his brother was realistic for him and in character . The reviewer called the conclusion to the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week a “ fun and satisfying one ” that highlighted the moral ambiguity of main characters , something “ that the show had been lacking for a while . ” He highlighted this ambiguity in both Weevil in Logan , elaborating that Logan attacking Piz showed an interesting side to his personality that had not been present all season . The reviewer also lauded the <unk> ending , stating , “ it was a reminder of how exciting and intense this show can be at its best . ” Television Without Pity did not grant the episode a rating but lauded the characterization of Weevil , stating , “ This is the most consistently written character on the show , bar none . ” \n', ' Kelly West of Cinema <unk> focused primarily on the series finale in her review but referred to this episode as containing a solid case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week . “ Overall it was a good mystery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week but seeing as it was the second to last episode , the only thing I cared about was that we finally got more Weevil ! ” Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave the episode a mixed review , stating that the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week was an <unk> of the overall themes of Veronica Mars . The reviewer enjoyed the potential for Logan and Dick ’ s character development , although he felt that it was <unk> by the knowledge that the series was about to end . “ As fun as this episode is , the lack of the fourth season stops me from fully enjoying it . [ … ] But the knowledge that this might be the last time we see them puts a <unk> on things . Still , better to go out with good episodes than bad . ” \n', '', '', ' = Temple Beth Israel ( Eugene , Oregon ) = \n', '', ' Temple Beth Israel ( Hebrew : <unk> <unk> ) is a <unk> synagogue located at 1175 East 29th Avenue in Eugene , Oregon . Founded in the early 1930s as a Conservative congregation , Beth Israel was for many decades the only synagogue in Eugene . \n', ' The congregation initially worshipped in a converted house on West Eighth Street . It constructed its first building on Portland Street in 1952 , and occupied its current <unk> @-@ <unk> facilities in 2008 . \n', ' In the early 1990s conflict between feminist and traditional members led to the latter leaving Beth Israel , and forming the Orthodox Congregation <unk> Torah . Beth Israel came under attack from neo @-@ Nazi members of the <unk> twice , in 1994 and again in 2002 . In both cases the <unk> were caught and convicted . \n', " Services were lay @-@ led for decades . Marcus Simmons was hired as the congregation 's first rabbi in 1959 , but left in 1961 . After a gap of two years , Louis <unk> became rabbi in 1963 , and served until his death in 1976 . He was followed by <unk> <unk> , who served from 1977 to 1994 , and <unk> in turn was succeeded by <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> . Maurice Harris joined <unk> @-@ <unk> as associate rabbi in 2003 , and served until 2011 , when he was succeeded by Boris <unk> . As of 2014 , led by <unk> @-@ <unk> and <unk> , Beth Israel had approximately 400 member households , and was the largest synagogue in Eugene . \n", '', ' = = Early history = = \n', '', ' Small numbers of German Jews began settling in Eugene in the late 19th century , but most moved on . In the early 20th century the first Eastern European Jews settled there , and by the 1920s Eugene \'s Jewish community began gathering prayer <unk> for holding Friday night and Jewish holiday services in individuals \' homes . Historian Steven Lowenstein writes that " [ a ] <unk> <unk> <unk> \'s death in 1933 , his home at 231 West Eighth Street was remodeled and named Temple Beth Israel " . It was a traditional Conservative synagogue , and from that time until the 1990s it was the only synagogue in Eugene . \n', ' In 1952 , the congregation constructed a one @-@ story synagogue building on an almost 1 acre ( 0 @.@ 40 ha ) property at <unk> Portland Street . Designed by architect and Holocaust @-@ survivor Heinrich <unk> ( <unk> ) <unk> , the building featured an interior courtyard that provided natural lighting , and " a network of ceiling beams painted with symbols and shapes " by <unk> . \n', " Temple Beth Israel 's services and religious functions were lay @-@ led for decades . Its first rabbi was Marcus Simmons . Originally from England , he was a graduate of University of London and Oxford University , and was ordained at the Hebrew <unk> <unk> . He emigrated to the United States in 1957 , and joined Beth Israel in 1959 . The members were not , however , agreed that a full @-@ time rabbi was required , and in 1961 , he accepted a <unk> position in <unk> , California . \n", " Following a hiatus of two years , Louis <unk> was hired as rabbi in 1963 . Born in New York City in 1912 to immigrant parents , he was a graduate of City University of New York and was ordained at the Jewish Institute of New York . He had previously worked for the United Jewish Appeal , and from 1959 to 1963 was the first <unk> rabbi at Syracuse University . There was some concern about <unk> 's hiring , as he had a police record as a result of his involvement in freedom marches in the African @-@ American Civil Rights Movement ( 1955 – 1968 ) . He served until his death in 1976 . \n", '', ' = = <unk> era = = \n', '', " <unk> <unk> was hired as rabbi in 1977 . <unk> in Reform Judaism , he had previously served as a rabbi in <unk> , Kansas for two years , then lived in Israel for two years , before coming to Eugene . <unk> was known for his support for minority rights and gay rights , anti @-@ nuclear and anti @-@ war activism , support of reconciliation between Israel and the Palestinians , and outreach to non @-@ <unk> members of Eugene 's Jewish community . \n", ' <unk> attempted to revive the Biblical concept of the " <unk> <unk> " in his approach to <unk> . He was willing to <unk> at an <unk> if the non @-@ Jewish partner , after discussions with the rabbi , agreed of his or her own free will to fulfill a set of commitments , including " a commitment to a Jewish home life , participation in Jewish life and tradition , and raising future children as Jews " . The non @-@ Jewish partner making this commitment became a " <unk> <unk> " , or " non @-@ Jewish member of the Jewish people " . \n', " <unk> 's wife Alice was a strong feminist , and during the 1980s he and his wife supported a number of changes to the <unk> and ritual . These included allowing women to read from the Torah and lead the prayers , and changing prayers to be more gender inclusive - for example , using gender @-@ neutral terms and <unk> for God , and adding references to the Biblical <unk> in prayers like the <unk> , which traditionally only mentioned the Biblical <unk> . While most congregation members approved of these changes , a minority resisted them . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' By the early 1990s serious divisions developed among the members of the congregation over a number of issues , including personal <unk> , the rabbi \'s activism and " advocacy of \' ultra @-@ liberal \' causes " , political differences over the Israeli – Palestinian conflict , and \n', ' a myriad of additional Jewish cultural / religious issues , such as the acceptance of <unk> couples , adherence to <unk> dietary laws , the use of modern language and music during worship services , <unk> of certain prayers such as the <unk> to make them less <unk> , and so on . \n', ' However , the biggest source of division , which <unk> all others , was " the roles and rights of men and women in the synagogue . " \n', ' In the early 1990s a group of newly <unk> members began holding more traditional services in a back room of the synagogue , complete with a <unk> , a partition separating men and women . The " more feminist @-@ minded " members strongly objected to having a <unk> anywhere in the Temple Beth Israel building , even if it were not in the services they attended . The latter group eventually circulated a petition which stated that either the <unk> would have to be taken down , or those members who wanted it would have to leave . <unk> also signed the petition . Faced with this opposition , in 1992 the Orthodox members left , renting new premises and hiring their own rabbi , creating Eugene \'s second synagogue , originally called " The <unk> <unk> " , and in 1998 renamed " Congregation <unk> Torah " . \n', ' <unk> held himself responsible , and the schism led to his " <unk> of the needs of Temple Beth Israel and his role as a rabbi " . As a result , he left Beth Israel in 1994 to lead a synagogue on Long Island . During his tenure at Beth Israel , membership rose from 118 to 350 families . <unk> died two years later at age 51 . \n', '', ' = = <unk> @-@ <unk> era = = \n', '', ' <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> succeeded <unk> in 1995 . <unk> @-@ <unk> began his involvement at Temple Beth Israel first as a <unk> , then as cantor , and then as an assistant rabbi . He was active in forming the Jewish <unk> movement , and was ordained by its leader <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> . \n', ' The congregation decided to leave the Conservative movement in 1995 , and for a year had no affiliation . In late 1996 , after considering both Reform and <unk> as <unk> , the congregation affiliated with the <unk> movement . By 1999 , membership had grown to around 370 families . \n', ' <unk> @-@ <unk> was instrumental in developing the concept of " <unk> <unk> " , the idea that one should only purchase goods that are produced in an ethical way . His essay , " <unk> <unk> , " was selected for publication in Arthur <unk> \'s Best Jewish Writing 2003 . A singer , cello and guitar player , he <unk> and performs Jewish music . \n', ' <unk> @-@ <unk> has had four assistant or associate <unk> working with him . <unk> <unk> joined Temple Beth Israel in 1998 as interim rabbi when <unk> @-@ <unk> went on a <unk> ; Jonathan <unk> was assistant rabbi from 2001 to 2003 . Maurice Harris , a 2003 graduate of the <unk> <unk> College , joined as assistant rabbi in 2003 . He is one of the <unk> of The Open <unk> Concerning Religion and Science From American <unk> , part of the <unk> <unk> Project which " encourages and <unk> the teaching of evolution in schools " . In 2011 , Boris <unk> joined the congregation as its newest associate rabbi . \n', '', ' = = = Attacks by neo @-@ Nazis = = = \n', '', " On March 20 , 1994 , Chris Lord , an individual associated with the <unk> and American Front , fired ten rounds with an assault rifle into the temple , damaging the interior . The attacks were prompted by a newspaper article about several members of Eugene 's Jewish community , including a lesbian . Community organizations , including a local gay rights group , responded by standing vigil outside the synagogue during <unk> services . Lord and an associate were caught and convicted , and Lord was sentenced to four and a half years in prison . \n", " On October 25 , 2002 Jacob <unk> , his brother Gabriel <unk> , Gerald <unk> , Jesse Baker , and one other man , all members of the <unk> , drove to Beth Israel with the intent of intimidating the <unk> . While a service with 80 members attending was taking place , the men threw rocks etched with Nazi <unk> through the synagogue 's stained glass windows , then <unk> off . The men were caught , pleaded guilty , and were convicted . They served sentences ranging from a 6 @-@ month work release term and five years <unk> , to eleven years and three months in federal prison for the <unk> , Jacob <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = East 29th Avenue building = = = \n', '', " Originally sized for 75 families , Temple Beth Israel 's Portland Street building had been renovated and enlarged over the years to 7 @,@ 500 square feet ( 700 m2 ) to accommodate 250 families and 150 students . Despite these additions and the loss of members to Congregation <unk> Torah , the synagogue was not large enough , particularly during the High <unk> , when extra space had to be rented . In 1997 the congregation purchased the property of the University Street Christian Church for $ 500 @,@ 000 ( today $ 740 @,@ 000 ) , and began planning for a new facility . The members considered renovating the existing building on the property , but felt a new building would better suit their requirements , and razed the church . \n", ' In 2003 the congregation got a permit to begin construction of a new facility on the now @-@ vacant 1 @.@ 37 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 55 ha ) plot of land at the northwest corner of East 29th Avenue and University Street . An initial capital campaign raised more than $ 1 @.@ 8 million , which fully paid for the land , and by August 2007 an additional $ 1 @.@ 7 million had been raised towards anticipated overall project costs of $ 5 million . \n', ' The environmentally sensitive building was designed by <unk> Solomon and Associates of Kansas City and local company <unk> Architects & <unk> , and built by <unk> Commercial Construction of Eugene . The building used " energy efficient heating , ventilation and lighting " : specific design issues with the building \'s energy efficiency included the fact that the largest room in the building , the sanctuary , was also the least @-@ used , and , in accord with Jewish tradition , had to face east ( towards Jerusalem ) . \n', ' On June 8 , 2008 the congregation dedicated its new building at 1175 East 29th Avenue . At approximately 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) , the facility included a sanctuary , commercial kitchen , banquet facilities , and classrooms , and housed the synagogue , the Lane County Jewish Federation , and the local Jewish Family Service . The project ended up costing $ 6 million , of which $ 4 million had been raised . \n', ' Made of concrete , steel , and wood , the building achieved <unk> in Energy and Environmental Design compliance " through the integration of <unk> management strategies , high efficiency irrigation , the use of recycled and / or <unk> materials , and drought tolerant <unk> . " <unk> <unk> materials used in the structure included <unk> and wood beams . \n', '', ' = = Recent events = = \n', '', ' In 2008 , Temple Beth Israel participated in <unk> Across America , an " <unk> witness against torture coordinated by the National Religious Campaign Against <unk> , " as part of the Jewish Campaign Against <unk> . <unk> by <unk> for Human Rights — North America in honor of <unk> Awareness Month , the Jewish campaign included over 25 <unk> which hung <unk> protesting " the use of abusive <unk> techniques by the American military and intelligence community " . That year , <unk> membership reached almost 400 families , and the Talmud Torah and pre @-@ school had about 200 and 40 students respectively . \n', " The congregation sold the old synagogue building on Portland Street to Security First ( Portland Street ) Child Development Center for $ 815 @,@ 000 in 2009 , carrying the Center 's financing . The building was converted for use as an educational center , while retaining some of the original architectural elements . <unk> economic conditions forced the Child Development Center to give up the building in 2011 , and Eugene 's Network Charter School planned to move into it in autumn 2011 . \n", " Harris announced he would be stepping down as rabbi in 2011 , and the synagogue hired Boris <unk> as his successor . Born and raised in Oregon , <unk> had worked at Temple Beth Israel as a teacher and youth group adviser from 1999 to 2001 . A graduate of the University of Oregon , with a master 's degree in Jewish Education from the Jewish <unk> <unk> , he was ordained by the <unk> <unk> College . \n", ' As of 2011 , Temple Beth Israel was the largest synagogue in Eugene . It was a member of the Community of <unk> <unk> , " an Oregon and <unk> Washington <unk> ministry and advocacy organization working toward full inclusion and equality for <unk> , lesbian , <unk> , gay and questioning persons . " The <unk> were <unk> <unk> @-@ <unk> and Boris <unk> . \n', '', '', ' = New York State Route 93 = \n', '', ' New York State Route 93 ( NY 93 ) is a 43 @.@ 08 @-@ mile ( 69 @.@ 33 km ) state highway in western New York in the United States . The route begins at an intersection with NY <unk> in the village of <unk> and runs in a general northwest – southeast direction across Niagara and Erie counties to its east end at an intersection with NY 5 in the town of Newstead , just south of the village of <unk> . NY 93 serves as a connector between several major <unk> , including NY 104 in <unk> , NY 31 just west of the city of <unk> , and NY 78 south of the city . \n', " The route was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . Although it began in <unk> and ended in Newstead as it does today , the initial routing of NY 93 <unk> from the modern path in the vicinity of the city of <unk> . From <unk> to <unk> 's eastern suburbs , the highway originally used NY 425 , Lower Mountain Road , <unk> Road , and a series of streets in <unk> . NY 93 was moved onto NY 104 and Junction Road in <unk> in the 1940s , and altered to bypass <unk> to the south on a new highway and Robinson and <unk> roads in 1991 . In 2006 , NY 93 was realigned west of <unk> to continue south on Junction Road to NY 31 . The change removed NY 93 from Upper Mountain Road , a county @-@ owned highway that had been part of the route since the 1930s . \n", '', ' = = Route description = = \n', '', '', ' = = = West of <unk> = = = \n', '', ' NY 93 begins at an intersection with NY <unk> ( Main Street ; co @-@ designated but not signed as County Route 907 or CR 907 ) in the center of the village of <unk> . The route proceeds eastward through the village as a two @-@ lane road named <unk> Street , serving two blocks of commercial areas before <unk> to the northeast and passing into the residential eastern portion of <unk> . At the eastern village limits , NY 93 briefly <unk> to four lanes as it enters a partial cloverleaf interchange with the Niagara Scenic Parkway . Past the junction , the highway <unk> to a two @-@ lane road and changes names to <unk> – <unk> Road as it runs across the town of Porter . The residential surroundings continue to the hamlet of Towers Corners , where NY 93 connects to NY 18 ( Creek Road ) . \n', " After NY 18 , NY 93 curves to the southeast , serving another residential stretch ahead of a junction with <unk> – Wilson Road ( CR 36 ) on the eastern edge of Towers Corners . After this intersection , the homes give way to farms as the road heads into rural areas of the town . The route continues on a southeast track through Porter , passing a mixture of rural and residential areas on its way into the hamlet of Porter Center , where NY 93 enters an intersection with Porter Center Road ( CR 57 ) . Another southeastward stretch brings the route across <unk> Creek and into the hamlet of <unk> , where NY 93 becomes the community 's main street . Through <unk> , NY 93 retains the <unk> – <unk> Road name , intersecting with <unk> Road ( CR 17 ) in the hamlet 's business district . \n", " Just outside <unk> , NY 93 leaves the town of Porter for the town of Wilson . It continues generally southeastward across mostly open terrain , meeting Randall Road ( CR 83 ) and Church Street ( CR 56 ) on its way to the town of <unk> . NY 93 becomes North Ridge Road at the town line , and it soon enters the hamlet of North Ridge , a community built up around the route 's intersection with NY 425 ( <unk> – Wilson Road ) . The hamlet 's residential surroundings continue to the adjacent community of <unk> Corners , where NY 93 becomes concurrent with NY 104 ( Ridge Road ) . NY 93 and NY 104 proceed northeast across lightly populated areas for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to the hamlet of Warren Corners , at which point NY 93 splits from NY 104 and heads southward along Town Line Road . It immediately intersects with Stone Road ( CR 19 ) before leaving the hamlet . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> area = = = \n', '', " Outside of Warren Corners , the route heads across rural areas along the <unk> – <unk> town line . It soon enters the small hamlet of <unk> Corners , where the road passes under Lower Mountain Road ( CR <unk> ) . <unk> to the highway is made by way of Town Line Road Spur ( CR 114 ) , a connector leading to Lower Mountain Road . NY 93 continues southward along the town line , changing names to Junction Road at an intersection with Upper Mountain Road ( CR 5 ) west of the city of <unk> . From here , the route crosses over <unk> Transportation 's <unk> <unk> rail line at the hamlet of <unk> Junction before intersecting with NY 31 ( Saunders Settlement Road ) and NY 270 ( Campbell Boulevard ) just south of the community . NY 270 begins straight ahead to the south while NY 93 turns northeast onto Saunders Settlement Road , beginning a concurrency with NY 31 . \n", ' Now fully in the town of <unk> , NY 31 and NY 93 proceed northeast through an open area of the town as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The two routes continue to the western edge of the city of <unk> , where they intersect with Upper Mountain Road and the <unk> Bypass . The overlap ends here as NY 93 turns southeastward onto the two @-@ lane bypass . Along the bypass , NY 93 briefly enters the city limits as it runs past several industrial facilities and intersects with <unk> Road ( CR 903 ) just ahead of a bridge over the Erie Canal . Past the waterway , the bypass takes a more <unk> course through an undeveloped part of the town of <unk> to a junction with Robinson Road ( CR 123 ) on the <unk> – <unk> town line . The <unk> Bypass ends here , leaving NY 93 to turn eastward onto Robinson Road . \n', " The route initially serves a line of homes as it heads along Robinson Road ; however , it soon enters a commercial district surrounding the road 's intersection with NY 78 ( Transit Road ) . At this point , the <unk> – <unk> town line turns south to follow NY 78 , leaving NY 93 fully within the town of <unk> as it runs eastward past another stretch of homes . Not far from NY 78 , NY 93 changes names to <unk> Road at an intersection with Beattie Avenue ( CR 14 ) and Raymond Road ( CR 85 ) . The junction also marks a shift in the road 's surroundings as the homes give way to open , rolling terrain . NY 93 continues eastward for several miles to the town of <unk> , where it meets <unk> Road ( CR 35 ) and <unk> Road ( CR 142 ) at adjacent intersections just east of the town line . \n", '', ' = = = East of <unk> = = = \n', '', " NY 93 takes over <unk> Road 's name and right @-@ of @-@ way , continuing eastward past a line of scattered homes to reach the sparsely developed hamlet of <unk> . Here , the route turns southward at a junction with Bunker Hill Road ( CR 136 ) . Outside of <unk> , NY 93 heads southeastward across undeveloped areas of <unk> , connecting to Block Church Road ( CR 110 ) as it approaches <unk> Creek and the Niagara – Erie county line . The road runs along the northern edge of the creek for about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) prior to curving southward at an intersection with <unk> Road ( CR 122 ) . The turn brings NY 93 across <unk> Creek and into the Erie County town of Newstead , where it becomes known as Maple Road and immediately intersects with CR 260 ( <unk> Road ) . \n", ' Continuing southward , NY 93 runs across open , rolling terrain , meeting CR 259 ( <unk> Creek Road ) on its way to the hamlet of <unk> Mills . Here , the rural surroundings briefly give way to residential areas as NY 93 intersects with CR 255 ( Swift Mills Road ) in the center of the community . South of <unk> Mills , the road serves only intermittent stretches of homes for 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , including a cluster of residences around its closely spaced intersections with CR 253 ( <unk> Road ) and CR 42 ( Rapids Road ) . It continues on a southward track past the eastern terminus of CR 218 ( <unk> Corner – <unk> Road ) to the outskirts of the village of <unk> , where the highway turns east onto Lewis Road and soon enters the village limits . NY 93 runs past a line of homes before intersecting Cedar Street , a road maintained by Erie County as CR 261 north of the village . \n', " The route turns south at Cedar Street , following the residential street into downtown <unk> . Here , NY 93 intersects with CR <unk> ( John Street ) at a junction that was once the western terminus of NY 267 . At this intersection , NY 93 heads west on John Street for one block before continuing south on Buffalo Street for another block to Main Street . NY 93 turns westward again , following Main Street through the westernmost part of <unk> 's central business district prior to curving southwestward at a junction with <unk> Street . The highway takes on the <unk> Street name as it crosses over Murder Creek and leaves downtown <unk> . Just south of the creek , NY 93 changes names to <unk> Street at an intersection with Jackson Street . \n", " As the route continues southward through the southern part of <unk> , it serves mostly residential areas , save for an industrial complex at NY 93 's intersection with CR 163 ( Clarence Center Road ) and CR 167 ( <unk> Drive ) . NY 93 exits <unk> a short distance south of the junction , at which point the route heads into another area of open fields while retaining the <unk> Street name . It continues on a southward track for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) to a <unk> intersection with NY 5 ( Main Road ) , where <unk> Street and NY 93 both come to an end . \n", '', ' = = History = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> and early changes = = = \n', '', ' NY 93 was established as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , connecting the cities and villages of <unk> , <unk> , and <unk> . While the <unk> of NY 93 have remained the same to this day , several portions of the route have been realigned since that time . When NY 93 was first assigned , it turned south at the hamlet of North Ridge and overlapped with NY 425 along <unk> – Wilson Road to Lower Mountain Road , then part of NY 3 . NY 425 went west from this junction while NY 93 headed eastward , following NY 3 along Lower Mountain , Gothic Hill , Upper Mountain , and Saunders Settlement roads to the city of <unk> . At <unk> Street , NY 93 left NY 3 and exited the city along <unk> , High , and <unk> streets and <unk> Road . It met its current alignment southeast of the city in <unk> . \n', " NY 3 was realigned c . 1932 to follow Saunders Settlement Road between <unk> Road ( NY 425 ) and Upper Mountain Road . The former routing of NY 3 along <unk> , Lower Mountain , Gothic Hill , and Upper Mountain roads was redesignated as NY <unk> even though all of NY 3 's former routing was already part of either NY 425 or NY 93 . The NY <unk> designation was eliminated c . 1935 when NY 3 was truncated eastward to a new western terminus in central New York . In the early 1940s , NY 93 was altered to follow North Ridge Road , U.S. Route 104 ( now NY 104 ) , and Junction Road between North Ridge and Lower Mountain Road . \n", " Around the same time that NY 93 was rerouted , NY 270 was also extended northward along Junction Road from NY 31 to US 104 . As a result , NY 93 overlapped NY 270 between Lower Mountain Road and US 104 . The overlap with NY 270 remained in place until c . 1963 when NY 270 was truncated southward to the intersection of Lower Mountain and Junction roads . NY 93 was realigned in the late 1970s to bypass Lower Mountain and Gothic Hill Roads on Junction and Upper Mountain roads , replacing NY 270 along Junction Road . The Lower Mountain Road portion of NY 93 's former routing is now maintained by Niagara County as County Route <unk> ( CR <unk> ) . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> <unk> = = = \n', '', " The <unk> Bypass , a highway bypassing downtown <unk> to the southwest , was opened to traffic on July 26 , 1991 . The highway cost $ 7 @.@ 7 million ( equivalent to $ 13 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) to construct and extended from the junction of NY 31 and NY 93 west of the city to Robinson Road south of downtown . NY 93 was realigned to follow the new bypass south to Robinson Road , where it turned east and followed Robinson Road ( CR 123 ) and <unk> Road ( CR 133 ) to <unk> Road in <unk> . The portion of <unk> Road ( NY 93 's former routing ) east of the <unk> city limits became NY <unk> , an unsigned reference route . \n", ' <unk> and maintenance of Robinson Road from the bypass to NY 78 was transferred from Niagara County to the state of New York on September 1 , 1990 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The portion of NY 93 between NY 78 and <unk> Road became state @-@ maintained on October 1 , 1998 , as part of another swap that also transferred ownership and maintenance of <unk> Road to Niagara County . <unk> Road is now CR 142 . \n', ' On November 1 , 2005 , the Niagara County Legislature voted on a measure to allow the county to ask the New York State Department of Transportation ( <unk> ) to remove the NY 93 designation from Upper Mountain Road , a county @-@ maintained highway , and <unk> it to Junction Road ( NY 270 ) and Saunders Settlement Road ( NY 31 ) . The <unk> for the change came from a resident of Upper Mountain Road , who demanded that trucks should be removed from the roadway . This part of the agenda was passed . <unk> obliged to the request in 2006 , <unk> NY 93 as proposed and <unk> NY 270 southward to NY 31 . \n', '', ' = = Major intersections = = \n', '', '', '', ' = Operation USA = \n', '', ' Operation USA ( <unk> , Operation California , or <unk> ) is a non profit humanitarian organization dedicated to helping communities alleviate the effects of disaster , disease , and endemic poverty throughout the world by providing privately funded relief , reconstruction , humanitarian aid and development aid . It is exclusively privately funded , receiving no assistance from the United States Federal Government . <unk> had a revenue of over $ 22 million in fiscal year 2012 and has shipped over $ 425 million worth of " high @-@ priority medical , nutritional and shelter supplies " since its inception , including shipments to Haiti , Japan , Chile , Kenya and Pakistan in 2011 and 2011 . \n', '', ' = = Awards and affiliations = = \n', '', ' Operation USA was part of the International Campaign to Ban <unk> in 1997 when it won the Nobel Peace Prize . Operation California was also the winner of the 1983 President \'s Volunteer Action Award . Operation USA has been named one of America \'s Best 100 <unk> by Worth Magazine and , in October 2008 , was named the top @-@ rated " exclusively privately funded charity in the U.S. " by Charity <unk> . Operation USA collaborated with NASA \'s Jet <unk> Laboratory and the US National Laboratories at Lawrence <unk> and Los Alamos to develop new approaches to land mine detection , is a member of <unk> , and is an <unk> news partner . In 2014 Operation USA \'s CEO Richard M. <unk> received the <unk> <unk> Hero Award from the <unk> <unk> \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', ' Operation California began in 1979 as " a relief organization created to provide aid to Vietnamese Boat People and Cambodian refugees " , founded by Richard <unk> ( still active as President & CEO ) and <unk> Werner ( who left in early 1980 ) . The organization flew " the first international relief <unk> to Cambodia since 1975 " , delivering medicine to Phnom @-@ Penh . Operation California had <unk> more than $ 3 million worth of aid by October 1979 . \n', ' Since then , Operation USA has become a highly acclaimed aid organization that is involved in helping people in different ways around the world . In 1982 , Operation California sent " the first private <unk> from the U.S. to Poland " , delivering 200 @,@ 000 <unk> of medical supplies and medicine ; that year Operation California also <unk> medical supplies to Lebanon . In 1983 , Operation California delivered aid to the children of Vietnam and Cambodia . Operation California provided aid to the earthquake victims in Mexico City in 1985 , as well as working in cooperation with the <unk> <unk> Service Committee and Oxfam America , to deliver $ 250 @,@ 000 worth of medical aid to Nicaragua . In 1986 Operation California , in conjunction with Medical Aid to El Salvador , sent " [ t ] <unk> cargo planes carrying $ 500 @,@ 000 worth of relief supplies to earthquake @-@ stricken El Salvador " . \n', " In 1988 , Operation California began using the name Operation USA because it better described the effort and intent of the organization to represent the entire American people . In 1989 Operation USA facilitated operations on children in Vietnam who had <unk> <unk> by a Los Angeles @-@ based plastic surgeon , Dr Stanley <unk> . Medical aid effort was delivered to Mexico in 1990 , by <unk> in conjunction with USSR relief workers . In 1991 <unk> delivered aid to Bangladesh . <unk> delivered aid to war torn Somali 's in 1993 . In 1994 <unk> provided earthquake relief . In 1995 the organization provided aid to Hurricane Mitch survivors in Honduras and Nicaragua . In 1999 <unk> supplied aid to storm victims in Mexico . In 2003 <unk> delivered aid to Iraq War victims in the Persian Gulf . The tsunami victims in Sri Lanka and Indonesia were aided by <unk> in 2004 , as well as the Mexico City Flood victims . \n", ' In 2008 , <unk> has delivered aid to <unk> cyclone victims as well as Chinese earthquake victims and flood victims in the Midwest , USA . \n', ' In 2015 , <unk> partners with <unk> to raise fund for its project , which is to deliver recovery aid to Nepal Earthquake victims . \n', '', ' = = Celebrity affiliates = = \n', '', ' Operation USA , since the early 1980s , has relied on fundraising efforts featuring singers and celebrities . These include concerts , <unk> , and other events . These promotions have featured : \n', ' <unk> Streisand \n', ' Bonnie <unk> \n', ' Carol <unk> \n', ' Crosby , <unk> & Nash \n', ' Don <unk> \n', ' Ed <unk> \n', ' Frank Sinatra \n', ' Jack Elliot \n', ' Jackson Browne \n', ' James Garner \n', ' John Denver \n', ' Julie Andrews \n', ' Kirk Douglas \n', ' Michael Jackson \n', ' New American Orchestra \n', ' <unk> Domingo \n', ' Ricardo <unk> \n', ' <unk> <unk> \n', ' Sharon Stone \n', ' The Buena Vista Social Club \n', ' Tony Adams \n', ' <unk> Dawson travelled with Operation USA to Nicaragua in 2008 . George Hamilton assisted with relief to The Philippines Typhoon <unk> in 2013 as did <unk> Streisand , <unk> Dawson , Jackson Browne , Bill <unk> and <unk> <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Film and theater projects = = \n', '', ' Operation USA also relies on film and theater promotions to generate funds that pay for aid , including : \n', ' Because We Care ( CBS Television Special ) \n', ' Beyond Borders ( Hollywood ) \n', ' Buena Vista Social Club ( film ) ( Hollywood & Havana ) \n', ' <unk> ( film ) ( Hollywood for <unk> ) \n', ' Mary <unk> ( musical ) ( London stage ) \n', ' Miss Saigon ( Hollywood ) \n', ' Roll <unk> \n', ' The Killing Fields ( film ) ( Hollywood & Cambodia ) \n', ' Victor / Victoria ( Broadway ) \n', ' <unk> at The Plaza ( Disney TV ) \n', '', '', ' = Typhoon <unk> ( 2013 ) = \n', '', ' Typhoon <unk> , known in the Philippines as Typhoon <unk> , was a typhoon that made landfall in the northern Philippines in late October 2013 . Forming on October 27 near Guam , the storm slowly intensified while moving westward . <unk> developed an eye and became a typhoon before striking Luzon on October 31 . The storm weakened over land , but re @-@ intensified over the South China Sea , reaching peak winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on November 2 off the southeast coast of China . Typhoon <unk> stalled and encountered unfavorable conditions , resulting in quick weakening . By November 3 , it had weakened to tropical storm status , and was no longer being warned on by the next day . In northern Luzon , <unk> damaged 32 @,@ 000 houses , including 3 @,@ 000 that were destroyed , and caused four fatalities . High winds and rainfall left <unk> million ( PHP , $ 6 @.@ 4 million USD ) in damage . \n', '', ' = = Meteorological history = = \n', '', ' On October 27 , an area of convection with a broad circulation persisted southeast of Guam , and slowly consolidated due to moderate wind shear and <unk> outflow . That day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression about 380 km ( 235 mi ) to the southeast of <unk> , Guam . At 2100 UTC on October 28 , the Philippine <unk> , <unk> and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) began issuing advisories on the depression , giving it the local name <unk> . The next day , the JMA upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm <unk> ( <unk> ) , and the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) also classified it as Tropical Depression <unk> . By that time , the storm was moving steadily westward due to the subtropical ridge to the north . With the warm waters of the Philippine Sea , <unk> wind shear , and improving outflow , <unk> gradually strengthened , and the JTWC also upgraded <unk> to tropical storm status on October 30 after an eye feature developed . \n', ' While approaching northern Luzon on October 29 , <unk> quickly intensified as the initial eye feature organized into a well @-@ defined eye . Late on October 30 , the JTWC upgraded <unk> to typhoon status , and the next day , both PAGASA and JMA followed suit . On October 31 , <unk> made landfall in northeastern Luzon near Cagayan , and developed a <unk> eyewall while initially moving over land . Land interaction weakened the eye by the time <unk> emerged into the South China Sea late on October 31 . The next day , PAGASA discontinued advisories after the typhoon exited the region . <unk> rebuilt around the center , with continued favorable conditions allowing for <unk> . \n', ' Late on November 1 , a large eye redeveloped , and the JTWC estimated <unk> attained peak 1 minute sustained winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Early the next day , the JMA also estimated the typhoon reached peak 10 minute winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Later , increasing wind shear caused the eye to deteriorate , and <unk> began slowing about 260 km ( 160 mi ) east @-@ southeast of Hong Kong after reaching the western edge of the subtropical ridge . After remaining nearly stationary , <unk> began moving steadily to the west @-@ southwest due to a new ridge . The convection continued to weaken due to continued shear and cooler waters from <unk> , and <unk> deteriorated to tropical storm status on November 3 . The next day , the JTWC issued its final advisory after the circulation became exposed from the convection . Also on November 4 , the JMA downgraded <unk> to tropical depression status off the northeast Vietnam coast . The system dissipated at 0000 UTC on November 5 . \n', '', ' = = Preparations and impact = = \n', '', ' Before <unk> struck the Philippines , PAGASA issued a number 3 warning signal for portions of northern Luzon , where winds were expected to reach over 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The agency noted for the potential for flooding and landslides . High winds knocked down trees across Luzon , and left about 80 % of Cagayan province without power , as well as some areas without internet or <unk> service . <unk> of the Pan @-@ Philippine Highway were blocked , and in Lal @-@ Lo , Cagayan , a car crashed into a gasoline truck due to power outages . Agriculture damage was estimated at <unk> million ( PHP , $ 6 @.@ 3 million USD ) , occurring just before the start of the harvest . Across the island , the typhoon damaged 32 @,@ <unk> houses , including 3 @,@ <unk> that were destroyed , forcing 65 @,@ 648 people to evacuate to storm shelters . Overall , <unk> killed four people in the Philippines , and left <unk> million ( PHP , $ 6 @.@ 4 million USD ) in damage . After the storm , workers quickly restored power lines , while the government provided monetary assistance to storm @-@ ravaged families , after Cagayan was declared a state of <unk> . Members of the Philippine military and Department of Public Works and Highways worked to clean up following the storm . \n', ' The China National Meteorological Centre issued a " yellow alert " , the second @-@ lowest of the four level warning system , for <unk> due to the threat of the storm . The agency recommended boats to return to port . <unk> in Vietnam also warned for the potential of heavy rainfall due to the dissipating Tropical Depression <unk> , and released water from three dams to prevent overflow . \n', '', '', " = <unk> 's Block Ball = \n", '', " <unk> 's Block Ball is a 1995 action video game , a spin @-@ off from the <unk> series for the Game Boy portable console . It is a <unk> clone ; the player controls <unk> along the screen 's edge to knock a bouncing ball , <unk> , into <unk> bricks . The game 's 55 levels include power @-@ ups , bonus rounds , and minigames . <unk> 's Block Ball was developed by HAL Laboratory and Nintendo R & D1 . The team spent half a year revising the gameplay to match <unk> 's signature characteristics . <unk> 's Block Ball was published by Nintendo first in Japan in 1995 , later in Europe , and last in North America in 1996 . \n", ' Reviewers considered the game an improvement on the <unk> formula and praised its gameplay craftsmanship and incorporation of the <unk> series . It was included in multiple top Game Boy game lists and was later <unk> on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual <unk> . \n', '', ' = = Gameplay = = \n', '', " The player controls <unk> along the screen 's edges to knock a bouncing ball , <unk> , into <unk> bricks . The player loses a life if <unk> hits the edge of the screen . Each of the game 's eleven stages include five rounds of increasingly complex block patterns for <unk> to clear . The ten different block types vary in <unk> and points value . A well @-@ timed hit of the <unk> gives <unk> a powerful bounce to break through harder blocks . Another block type turns the remaining blocks into a bonus round that rewards the player for clearing the screen in the least amount of time . The player can find <unk> stars that lead to minigames , such as air hockey , where the player can earn extra lives . The rounds also include enemies to attack and avoid . Some enemies contain bonus items . Each stage ends in a boss fight . \n", ' With stone , needle , flame , and spark power @-@ ups , <unk> can transform to interact with blocks differently . For instance , the spark power @-@ up lets <unk> break through otherwise <unk> blocks , and the needle lets <unk> hit spikes once without losing a life . The game has a themed frame and uses a wide palette of colors in @-@ game when played with the Super Game Boy . \n', '', ' = = Development = = \n', '', " The game was developed by HAL Laboratory with <unk> Yokoi 's Nintendo R & D1 , and published by Nintendo . At one point in development , HAL decided that the game did not feel like a <unk> game . The team spent six months completely revising the game under explicit instructions on how <unk> should move . <unk> games contain elements of unrestricted , creative movement as a general theme . <unk> 's Block Ball was released for the Game Boy first in Japan in 1995 and later in Europe ( 1995 ) and North America ( May 1996 ) . It was later <unk> on the Nintendo 3DS Virtual <unk> , and released first in Japan ( October 2011 ) and later in Europe ( February 2012 ) and North America ( May 2012 ) . \n", '', ' = = Reception and legacy = = \n', '', " On release , the four reviewers of Electronic Gaming Monthly applauded <unk> 's Block Ball for <unk> the <unk> formula to create a new and enjoyable game . They especially praised the unique power @-@ ups , though <unk> Boyer and <unk> X also felt the game was too short and easy . Nintendo Power said they enjoyed Block Ball and its number of stages , but wondered how its eight <unk> of memory were being used . The magazine found the parts where <unk> eats the <unk> blocks to be innovative . All six of the magazine 's reviewers recommended the game . \n", ' IGN wrote that the game was primarily remembered as " an <unk> or <unk> clone skinned with the <unk> franchise " . IGN calculated an average reviewer score of 7 @.@ 4 / 10 . The <unk> series became known for its number of non @-@ platformer spin @-@ offs , of which Block Ball was one , like <unk> \'s <unk> Land and <unk> \'s Dream Course . <unk> \'s spherical shape lent itself towards ball @-@ like roles . IGN wrote that Block Ball was the first " truly out there " <unk> spin @-@ off , but that the game was too short . \n', ' Planet Game Boy called it one of the original Game Boy \'s ten " all @-@ time classics " and GamesRadar placed it among the top 25 Game Boy games released . They considered <unk> \'s Block Ball an improvement upon <unk> , a Game Boy launch title and <unk> clone . IGN recommended the game upon its 3DS <unk> both in general and for <unk> fans . Nintendo World Report recommended the game to players who like score attack games and called it the best version of <unk> released . <unk> reviewers found the game enjoyable and praised the craft behind the gameplay and <unk> themes . Alternatively , <unk> \'s Block Ball received the lowest rating on Tim Rogers \'s 2004 " <unk> <unk> System for Portable Games " ( a metric by which he played a game while counting stops on the circular <unk> train line until he lost interest ) with a score of " one " stop . He called it " too <unk> bland " . \n', ' In a retrospective review , <unk> had high praise for the level design , graphics , and animations . They also found the music excellent in comparison to the annoying and repetitive soundtrack of most <unk> <unk> . The magazine also liked how the game fit the <unk> universe , apart from its increased difficulty — <unk> occasionally had trouble hitting the slow @-@ paced ball with precision . \n', '', '', ' = Hannah Dodd = \n', '', ' Hannah Dodd ( born 27 April 1992 ) is an Australian Grade IV <unk> and 2 @.@ 0 point wheelchair basketball player who represented Australia in <unk> at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , coming 11th and 12th in her events . <unk> to wheelchair basketball , she made her debut with the national team at the Osaka Cup in February 2015 . \n', ' In 2008 , Dodd was the Australian national Grade IV para @-@ <unk> champion . She was runner @-@ up in 2009 , and won the Australian national championships again in 2011 , along with the Oceania Championships and the National Titles team events . By 2012 , she was the top @-@ ranked Australian competitor in her event and class . \n', " After the London Paralympics , Dodd took up wheelchair basketball . She started playing for the Sydney University Flames in the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2013 , made her debut with the national team at the Osaka Friendship Games in Osaka in February 2015 , winning bronze , and was part of the Under 25 team at the 2015 Women 's <unk> Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Beijing in July 2015 , winning silver . \n", '', ' = = Personal = = \n', '', ' Hannah Dodd was born on 27 April 1992 , and is from <unk> , New South Wales . She has <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> with upper limb <unk> , and is missing four vertebrae in her back . When she was about a year old , her <unk> started failing . Her entire renal system needed to be reconstructed . She has two older brothers . She can walk with the aide of a <unk> , and also uses a wheelchair . As of 2012 , she is a horse riding teacher and student at the University of Western Sydney where she is <unk> in sports and exercise science . \n', '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' Dodd is a Grade IV <unk> competitor , coached by Peter Turner . Due to her <unk> <unk> , when she rides her horse , she <unk> several bones every time , but as a result of anti @-@ doping rules , she has had to find alternative ways of <unk> with pain associated with riding . \n', " Dodd has been around horses since she was four months old , and was able to ride on her own by the time she was two years old , before she learned to walk . The sport gave her a degree of independence . She started competing in 2005 , and first represented Australia in 2006 , winning her first test in England that <unk> 2008 , she became the youngest @-@ ever winner of the Australian national championships . She finished first at the March 2009 inter @-@ schools cup at the St <unk> <unk> , and second at the 2009 Australian national championships , but her horse , Lucifer 's Dream , was injured in 2009 . In 2009 and 2010 , she searched for another horse to assist her in getting through Paralympic qualification . She won the Australian national championships again in 2011 , along with the Oceania Championships and the National Titles team events . By 2012 , she was the top @-@ ranked Australian competitor in her event and class . \n", ' Dodd was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London in <unk> events with her horse <unk> . These Games were her first , and she was the youngest Australian <unk> competitor . A fund <unk> was organised by <unk> , New South Wales , residents . While her own costs and the cost of her horse were covered by Australian Paralympic Committee and <unk> Australia , funds were required for her coach . She was placed 12th in the Individual Championship Test – Grade IV , and 11th in the Individual <unk> Test – Grade IV and Team Test – Grade IV . \n', '', ' = = Wheelchair basketball = = \n', '', ' After the London Paralympics , Dodd took up wheelchair basketball . She started for the Sydney University Flames in the Women \'s National Wheelchair Basketball League in 2013 . She has to strap her fingers and wrists , and usually <unk> a shoulder during a game . " I \'ve had a few <unk> and <unk> and been tipped out of my chair a few times , " she <unk> , " but it \'s really fun . The fast pace really gives you an <unk> kick and the girls I play with are awesome . " " If I have chose between my two sports for Rio , " she said , " I will go with basketball . " She made her debut with the national team , known as the Gliders , at the Osaka Cup in Osaka in February 2015 . The Gliders won bronze . In June 2015 , Dodd was selected as part of the under 25 team ( known as the Devils ) for the 2015 Women \'s <unk> Wheelchair Basketball World Championship in Beijing in July . The Devils won silver . By this time her health had deteriorated . She had to use a wheelchair much of the time , and her classification had dropped to a 2 @.@ 5 point player . In 2015 , she was reclassified a 2 @.@ 0 . \n', '', '', ' = Commonwealth War Graves Commission = \n', '', ' The Commonwealth War Graves Commission ( <unk> ) is an <unk> organisation of six independent member states whose principal function is to mark , record and maintain the graves and places of commemoration of Commonwealth of Nations military service members who died in the two World Wars . The Commission is also responsible for commemorating Commonwealth civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II . The Commission was founded by <unk> Ware and constituted through Royal Charter in 1917 named the Imperial War Graves Commission . The change to the present name took place in 1960 . \n', ' The Commission , as part of its mandate , is responsible for commemorating all Commonwealth war dead individually and equally . To this end , the war dead are commemorated by name on a <unk> , at an identified site of a burial , or on a memorial . War dead are commemorated uniformly and equally , irrespective of military or civil rank , race or <unk> . \n', ' The Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1 @.@ 7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries . Since its inception , the Commission has constructed approximately 2 @,@ 500 war <unk> and numerous memorials . The Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23 @,@ 000 separate burial sites and the maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide . In addition to commemorating Commonwealth military service members , the Commission maintains , under arrangement with applicable governments , over 40 @,@ 000 non @-@ Commonwealth war graves and over 25 @,@ 000 non @-@ war military and civilian graves . The Commission operates through the continued financial support of the member states : United Kingdom , Canada , Australia , New Zealand , India and South Africa . The current President of the Commonwealth War Graves Commission is Prince Edward , Duke of Kent . \n', '', ' = = History = = \n', '', '', ' = = = World War I = = = \n', '', " On the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , <unk> Ware , a director of the Rio <unk> Company , found that at 45 years old he was too old to join the British Army . He used the influence of Rio <unk> chairman , Viscount <unk> , to become the commander of a mobile unit of the British Red Cross . He arrived in France in September 1914 and whilst there was struck by the lack of any official mechanism for documenting or marking the location of graves of those who had been killed and felt compelled to create an organisation within the Red Cross for this purpose . In March 1915 , with the support of <unk> <unk> , <unk> @-@ General of the British Expeditionary Force , Ware 's work was given official recognition and support by the Imperial War Office and the unit was transferred to the British Army as the Graves <unk> Commission . The new Graves <unk> Commission had over 31 @,@ 000 graves of British and Imperial soldiers registered by October 1915 and 50 @,@ 000 registered by May 1916 . \n", ' When municipal <unk> began to <unk> Ware began negotiations with various local authorities to acquire land for further <unk> . Ware began with an agreement with France to build joint British and French <unk> under the understanding that these would be maintained by the French government . Ware eventually concluded that it was not <unk> to leave the maintenance responsibilities solely to the French government and subsequently arranged for France to purchase the land , grant it in <unk> , and leave the management and maintenance responsibilities to the British . The French government agreed under the condition that <unk> respected certain dimensions , were accessible by public road , were in the vicinity of medical aid stations and were not too close to towns or villages . Similar negotiations were started with the Belgian government . \n', " As reports of the grave registration work became public , the Commission began to receive letters of enquiry and requests for photographs of graves from relatives of deceased soldiers . By 1917 , 17 @,@ 000 photographs had been dispatched to relatives . In March 1915 , the Commission , with the support of the Red Cross , began to dispatch photographic prints and cemetery location information in answer to the requests . The Graves <unk> Commission became the Directorate of Graves <unk> and <unk> in the spring of 1916 in recognition of the fact that the scope of work began to extend beyond simple grave registration and began to include responding to <unk> from relatives of those killed . The <unk> 's work was also extended beyond the Western Front and into other theatres of war , with units deployed in Greece , Egypt and Mesopotamia . \n", '', ' = = = Formal establishment = = = \n', '', " As the war continued , Ware and others became concerned about the fate of the graves in the post @-@ war period . Following a suggestion by the British Army , the National Committee for the Care of Soldiers ' Graves was appointed by the British government in January 1916 , with Edward , Prince of Wales agreeing to serve as president . The National Committee for the Care of Soldiers ' Graves was created with the intention of taking over the work of the Directorate of Graves <unk> and <unk> after the war . The government felt that it was more appropriate to <unk> the work to a specially appointed body rather than to any existing government department . By early 1917 a number of members of the committee believed a formal imperial organisation would be needed to care for the graves . With the help of Edward , Prince of Wales , Ware submitted a memorandum to the Imperial War Conference in 1917 suggesting that an imperial organisation be constituted . The suggestion was accepted and on 21 May 1917 the Imperial War Graves Commission was established by Royal Charter , with the Prince of Wales serving as president , Secretary of State for War Lord Derby as chairman and Ware as vice @-@ chairman . The Commission 's undertakings began in earnest at the end of the First World War . Once land for <unk> and memorials had been guaranteed , the enormous task of recording the details of the dead could begin . By 1918 , some <unk> @,@ 000 graves had been identified and a further <unk> @,@ 000 casualties were registered as having no known grave . \n", ' The scale , and associated high number of casualties , of the war produced an entirely new attitude towards the commemoration of war dead . Previous to World War I , individual commemoration of war dead was often on an ad hoc basis and was almost exclusively limited to commissioned officers . However , the war required <unk> of a significant percentage of the population , either as volunteers or through conscription . An expectation had consequently arisen that individual soldiers would expect to be commemorated , even if they were low @-@ ranking members of the military . A committee under <unk> Kenyon , Director of the British Museum , presented a report to the Commission in November 1918 detailing how it envisioned the development of the <unk> . Two key elements of this report were that bodies should not be repatriated and that uniform memorials should be used to avoid class distinctions . Beyond the logistical nightmare of returning home so many corpses , it was felt that repatriation would conflict with the feeling of <unk> that had developed between serving ranks . \n', " An article in The Times on 17 February 1919 by <unk> Kipling carried the Commission 's proposal to a wider audience and described what the graves would look like . The article entitled War Graves : Work of Imperial Commission : Mr. Kipling 's Survey was quickly republished as an illustrated booklet , Graves of the Fallen . The illustrated booklet was intended to <unk> the impact of Kenyon 's report as it included illustrations of <unk> with mature trees and shrubs ; contrasting the bleak landscapes depicted in published battlefield photos . There was an immediate public <unk> following the publication of the reports , particularly with regards to the decision to not <unk> the bodies of the dead . The reports generated considerable discussion in the press which ultimately led to a heated debate in Parliament on 4 May 1920 . Sir James <unk> started the debate , followed by speeches by William <unk> @-@ <unk> in favour of the Commission 's principles and Robert Cecil speaking for those <unk> repatriation and opposing <unk> of grave markers . Winston Churchill closed the debate and asked that the issue not proceed to a vote . <unk> withdrew his motion , allowing the Commission to carry out its work assured of support for its principles . \n", '', ' = = = First <unk> and memorials to the missing = = = \n', '', ' Three of the most eminent architects of their day , Sir Herbert Baker , Sir Reginald <unk> , and Sir Edwin <unk> were commissioned to design the <unk> and memorials . <unk> Kipling was appointed literary advisor for the language used for memorial inscriptions . \n', " In 1920 , the Commission built three experimental <unk> at Le <unk> , <unk> and <unk> , following the principles outlined in the Kenyon report . Of these , the <unk> Communal Cemetery and <unk> was agreed to be the most successful . Having consulted with garden designer Gertrude Jekyll , the architects created a walled cemetery with uniform <unk> in a garden setting , augmented by <unk> 's Cross of <unk> and <unk> ' Stone of Remembrance . After some adjustments , <unk> became the template for the Commission 's building programme . <unk> were required because all three experimental <unk> went over budget . To ensure future <unk> remained within their budget the Commission decided to not build shelters in <unk> that contained less than 200 graves , to not place a Stone of Remembrance in any cemetery with less than 400 graves , and to limit the height of cemetery walls to 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . \n", ' At the end of 1919 , the Commission had spent £ 7 @,@ 500 , and this figure rose to £ 250 @,@ 000 in 1920 as construction of <unk> and memorials increased . By 1921 , the Commission had established 1 @,@ 000 <unk> which were ready for <unk> <unk> , and burials . Between 1920 and 1923 , the Commission was shipping 4 @,@ 000 <unk> a week to France . In many cases small <unk> were closed and the graves concentrated in larger ones . By 1927 , when the majority of construction had been completed , over 500 <unk> had been built , with 400 @,@ 000 <unk> , a thousand Crosses of <unk> , and 400 Stones of Remembrance . \n', ' The Commission had also been mandated to individually commemorate each soldier who had no known grave , which amounted to 315 @,@ 000 in France and Belgium alone . The Commission initially decided to build 12 monuments on which to commemorate the missing ; each memorial being located at the site of an important battle along the Western Front . After resistance from the French committee responsible for the <unk> of memorials on French territory , the Commission revised their plan and reduced the number of memorials , and in some cases built memorials to the missing in existing <unk> rather than as separate structures . \n', " Reginald <unk> 's <unk> Gate was the first memorial to the missing located in Europe to be completed , and was unveiled on 24 July 1927 . The <unk> Gate ( <unk> ) was found to have insufficient space to contain all the names as originally planned and 34 @,@ <unk> names of the missing were instead inscribed on Herbert Baker 's <unk> <unk> Memorial to the Missing . Other memorials followed : the Helles Memorial in Gallipoli designed by John James <unk> ; the <unk> Memorial on the Somme and the <unk> Memorial designed by Edwin <unk> ; and the Basra Memorial in Iraq designed by Edward <unk> Warren . The <unk> and India also erected memorials on which they commemorated their missing : the <unk> @-@ <unk> Memorial for the forces of India , the <unk> Memorial by Canada , the <unk> @-@ <unk> Memorial by Australia , the <unk> Wood Memorial by South Africa and the Beaumont @-@ Hamel Memorial by Newfoundland . The programme of commemorating the dead of the Great War was considered essentially complete with the inauguration of the <unk> Memorial in 1932 , though the <unk> Memorial would not be finished until 1936 , the <unk> @-@ <unk> Memorial until 1938 and <unk> were still conducting work on the <unk> Gate when Germany invaded Belgium in 1940 . \n", ' The only memorial created by the Commission that was not in the form of a monument or cemetery was the <unk> Institute at <unk> , Egypt — complete with library , and <unk> and pathology departments — as its memorial to men of the Egyptian Labour Corps and Camel Transport Corps . Its erection was agreed with local political pressure . \n', '', ' = = = World War II = = = \n', '', ' From the start of the Second World War in 1939 , the Commission organised grave registration units and , planning ahead based on the experience gained from the First World War , earmarked land for use as <unk> . When the war began turning in favour of the Allies , the Commission was able to begin restoring its First World War <unk> and memorials . It also began the task of commemorating the 600 @,@ 000 Commonwealth casualties from the Second World War . In 1949 , the Commission completed <unk> Canadian War Cemetery , the first of <unk> new <unk> and 36 new memorials . Eventually , over 350 @,@ 000 new <unk> were erected . Many were made from <unk> Wood stone . The wider scale of World War II , coupled with manpower shortages and unrest in some countries , meant that the construction and restoration programmes took much longer . Following the war , the Commission implemented a five @-@ year <unk> renovation programme . The <unk> neglect was largely addressed by 1950 but there were necessary structural repairs to be made . These , together with the <unk> of maintenance tasks from before the war , took a further 10 years to complete and the programme was not completed until the 1960s . \n', " With the increased number of civilian casualties compared with the World War I , Winston Churchill agreed to Ware 's proposal that the Commission also maintain a record of Commonwealth civilian war deaths . A supplemental chapter was added to the Imperial War Graves Commission 's charter on 7 February 1941 , <unk> the organisation to collect and record the names of civilians who died from enemy action during the Second World War , which resulted in the creation of the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour . The roll eventually contained the names of nearly 67 @,@ 000 civilians . The Commission and the Dean of Westminster reached an agreement that the roll would eventually be placed in Westminster Abbey but not until the roll was complete and hostilities had ended . The Commission handed over the first six volumes to the Dean of Westminster on 21 February 1956 ; the final volume was added to the showcase in 1958 . \n", '', ' = = = Post – World War II = = = \n', '', " Following World War II the Commission recognised that the word ' Imperial ' within its name was no longer appropriate . In the spirit of strengthening national and regional feelings the organisation 's name was changed to Commonwealth War Graves Commission in 1960 . \n", ' More recent conflicts have sometimes made it impossible for the Commission to care for <unk> in a given region or resulted in the destruction of sites altogether . <unk> Indian Cemetery in Germany was <unk> after the end of World War II and until the German <unk> because it was located in an area occupied by Russian forces and was not entirely rebuilt until 2005 . The Six @-@ Day War and War of <unk> resulted in the destruction of Port <unk> Memorial and Aden Memorial , and the death of a Commission <unk> at Suez War Memorial Cemetery . During the Lebanese Civil War two <unk> in Beirut were destroyed and had to be rebuilt . The maintenance of war graves and memorials in Iraq has remained difficult since Iran – Iraq War in the 1980s , with regular maintenance being impractical since after the Gulf War . \n', " The Commission has , and continues to , also provide support for war graves outside its traditional mandate . In 1982 , the British Ministry of Defence requested the Commission 's assistance to design and construct <unk> in the Falkland Islands for those killed during the <unk> War . Although these <unk> are not Commonwealth War Graves Commission <unk> , the Commission manages the administrative responsibilities of these <unk> . Since 2005 , the Commission has carried out similar management duties on behalf of the British Ministry of Defence for <unk> and graves of British and Imperial soldiers who died during the Second Boer War . In 2003 , Veterans Affairs Canada employed the Commission to develop an approach to locate grave markers for which the Canadian Minister of Veterans Affairs has responsibility . As of 2011 , the Commission conducts a twelve @-@ year cyclical inspection programme of Canadian veterans ' markers installed at the expense of the Government of Canada . \n", ' In 2008 , an <unk> excavation discovered mass graves on the edge of <unk> Wood outside of <unk> . Two @-@ hundred and fifty British and Australian bodies were excavated from five mass graves which were interred in the newly constructed <unk> ( <unk> Wood ) Military Cemetery . This was the first new Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in more than 50 years , the last such <unk> having been built after the Second World War . \n', '', ' = = <unk> sites and memorials = = \n', '', ' The Commission is currently responsible for the continued commemoration of 1 @.@ 7 million deceased Commonwealth military service members in 153 countries and approximately 67 @,@ 000 civilians who died as a result of enemy action during World War II . Commonwealth military service members are commemorated by name on either a <unk> , at an identified site of a burial , or on a memorial . As a result , the Commission is currently responsible for the care of war dead at over 23 @,@ 000 separate burial sites and maintenance of more than 200 memorials worldwide . The vast majority of burial sites are pre @-@ existing communal or municipal <unk> and parish <unk> located in the United Kingdom , however the Commission has itself constructed approximately 2 @,@ 500 war <unk> worldwide . The Commission has also constructed or commissioned memorials to commemorate the dead who have no known grave ; the largest of these is the <unk> Memorial . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> for inclusion = = = \n', '', ' The Commission only commemorates those who have died during the designated war years , while in Commonwealth military service or of causes attributable to service . The applicable periods of consideration are 4 August 1914 to 31 August 1921 for the First World War and 3 September 1939 to 31 December 1947 for the Second World War . The end date for the First World War period is the official end of the war , while for the Second World War the Commission selected a date approximately the same period after <unk> Day as the official end of the First World War was after the 1918 Armistice . \n', " <unk> who died as a result of enemy action during the Second World War are commemorated differently from those that died as a result of military service . They are commemorated by name through the Civilian War Dead Roll of Honour located in St George 's Chapel in Westminster Abbey . In addition to its mandated duties , the Commission maintains , under arrangement with applicable governments , over 40 @,@ 000 non @-@ Commonwealth war graves and over 25 @,@ 000 non @-@ war military and civilian graves . \n", '', ' = = = Architects and <unk> = = = \n', '', ' As well as the main Principal Architects for France and Belgium ( Baker , <unk> and <unk> ) , there were Principal Architects appointed for other regions as well . Sir Robert <unk> was Principal <unk> for Italy , Macedonia and Egypt , while Sir John James <unk> was Principal <unk> for Palestine and Gallipoli , assisted by Thomas Smith <unk> . The Principal <unk> for Mesopotamia was Edward <unk> Warren . \n', ' As well as these senior architects , there was a team of Assistant Architects who were actually responsible for many of the cemetery and memorial designs . These architects were younger , and many of them had served in the war . The Assistant Architects were : George <unk> Gordon <unk> , <unk> Clement von Berg , Charles Henry Holden ( who in 1920 became a Principal <unk> ) , William Harrison <unk> , William <unk> <unk> , George Hartley Goldsmith , Frank <unk> , Arthur James Scott Hutton , Noel Ackroyd <unk> , and John Reginald <unk> . Other architects that worked for the Commission , or won competitions for the Commission memorials , included George <unk> <unk> , Harold <unk> <unk> , <unk> Owen Rees , Gordon H. Holt , and Henry Philip <unk> de <unk> . \n', ' In January 1944 , Edward <unk> was appointed Principal <unk> for the UK . <unk> worked extensively for the Commission for 25 years until 1969 , becoming Chief <unk> and also succeeding Kenyon as Artistic <unk> . Together with <unk> , the other Principal Architects appointed during and after the Second World War were Hubert Worthington , Louis de <unk> , Philip <unk> and Colin St Clair <unk> . \n', ' Leading <unk> that worked on the memorials and <unk> after the First World War included Eric Henri <unk> , Charles Thomas Wheeler , Gilbert <unk> , and Charles <unk> Jagger . Other <unk> , both in the inter @-@ war period and after the Second World War , included William Reid Dick , Ernest <unk> , Basil <unk> , Alfred Turner , Laurence A. Turner , Walter Gilbert , Henry Poole , Vernon Hill , Robert <unk> Bell , Ferdinand Victor <unk> , Joseph <unk> , and Gilbert <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Cemetery design = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = Common architectural design features = = = = \n', '', " Structural design has always played an important part in the Commission 's <unk> . Apart from a few exceptions , due to local geological conditions , the <unk> follow the same design and uniform aesthetic all over the world . This makes the <unk> easily recognisable and distinguishes them from war graves administered by other groups or countries . \n", ' A typical cemetery is surrounded by a low wall or hedge and with a wrought @-@ iron gate entrance . For <unk> in France and Belgium , a land <unk> near the entrance or along a wall identifies the cemetery grounds as having been provided by the French or Belgian governments . All but the smallest <unk> contain a register with an inventory of the burials , a plan of the plots and rows , and a basic history of the cemetery . The register is located within a metal cupboard that is marked with a cross located in either the wall near the cemetery entrance or in a shelter within the cemetery . More recently , in larger sites , a stainless steel notice gives details of the respective military campaign . The <unk> within the cemetery are of a uniform size and design and mark plots of equal size . \n', ' The cemetery grounds are , except in drier climates , grass covered with a floral border around the <unk> . There is also an absence of any paving between the <unk> rows which is intended to make the cemetery feel like a traditional walled garden where visitors could experience a sense of peace . However , Carter and Jackson argue that the uniform aesthetics are designed to evoke a positive experience which deliberately masks and <unk> the nature of the war deaths . \n', '', ' = = = = Cross of <unk> and Stone of Remembrance = = = = \n', '', ' Typically , <unk> of more than 40 graves contain a Cross of <unk> designed by architect Reginald <unk> . This cross was designed to imitate medieval crosses found in <unk> in England with proportions more commonly seen in the Celtic cross . The cross is normally a <unk> four @-@ point limestone Latin cross , mounted on an octagonal base , and ranging in height from 14 to 32 feet . A bronze <unk> , blade down , is embedded on the face of the cross . This cross represents the faith of the majority of the dead and the sword represents the military character of the cemetery , intended to link British soldiers and the Christian concept of self @-@ sacrifice . \n', ' <unk> with more than 1000 burials typically have a Stone of Remembrance , designed by Edwin <unk> with the inscription " Their Name <unk> for <unk> " . The concept of the Stone of Remembrance stone was developed by <unk> Kipling to commemorate those of all faiths and none respectively . In contrast to the Cross of <unk> , the design for the stone deliberately avoided " shapes associated with particular religions " . The geometry of the structure was based on studies of the <unk> . Each stone is 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) long and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The shape of the stone has been compared both to that of a sarcophagus and an altar . The feature was designed using the principle of <unk> . The subtle curves in the design , if extended , would form a sphere 1 @,@ <unk> feet 8 inches ( <unk> @.@ 15 m ) in diameter . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> = = = = \n', '', ' Every grave is marked with a <unk> . Each <unk> contains the national emblem or regimental badge , rank , name , unit , date of death and age of each casualty inscribed above an appropriate religious symbol and a more personal dedication chosen by relatives . The <unk> use a standard upper case <unk> designed by MacDonald Gill . Individual graves are arranged , where possible , in straight rows and marked by uniform <unk> , the vast majority of which are made of Portland stone . The original <unk> dimensions were 76 centimetres ( 30 in ) tall , 38 cm ( 15 in ) wide , and 7 @.@ 6 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick . \n', ' Most <unk> are inscribed with a cross , except for those deceased known to be <unk> or non @-@ Christian . In the case of burials of Victoria Cross or George Cross recipients , the regimental badge is supplemented by the Victoria Cross or George Cross emblem . Sometimes a soldier employed a pseudonym because they were too young to serve or were sought by law enforcement ; in such cases their primary name is shown along with the <unk> " served as " . Many <unk> are for unidentified casualties ; they consequently bear only what could be discovered from the body . The <unk> , developed by <unk> Kipling , that appears on the graves of unidentified soldiers for which no details are known is " A Soldier of the Great War known <unk> God " . Some <unk> bear the text " believed to be buried in this cemetery " when they are believed to be buried in the cemetery but the exact location of the grave is not known . In some cases soldiers were buried in collective graves and distinguishing one body from another was not possible and thus one <unk> covers more than one grave . The <unk> does not denote any specific details of the death except for its date , and even then only if it is known , and are deliberately ambiguous about the cause of death . \n', ' Due to local conditions it was sometimes necessary for the Commission to deviate from its standard design . In places prone to extreme weather or earthquakes , such as Thailand and Turkey , stone @-@ faced pedestal markers are used instead of the normal <unk> . These measures are intended to prevent masonry being damaged during earthquakes or sinking into <unk> ground . In Italy <unk> were carved from <unk> <unk> limestone because it was in more plentiful supply . In <unk> Military Cemetery , in Greece , to avoid risk of earthquake damage , small <unk> are laid flat on the ground . The smaller size of the markers mean that they often lack unit insignia . \n', '', ' = = = = <unk> = = = = \n', '', " Commission <unk> are distinctive in treating <unk> as an integral part of the cemetery design . Originally , the <unk> concept was to create an environment where visitors could experience a sense of peace in a setting , in contrast to traditionally bleak <unk> . <unk> given by Arthur William Hill , the Assistant Director of the Royal <unk> Gardens at <unk> enabled the Commission to develop cemetery layouts and architectural structures that took into account the placement of suitable plant life . <unk> structural and <unk> elements was not unfamiliar to the Commission 's architects . Sir Edwin <unk> furthered his long @-@ standing working relationship with <unk> Gertrude Jekyll , whose devotion to traditional cottage garden plants and <unk> greatly influenced the appearance of the <unk> . Where possible , indigenous plants were utilised to enhance sentimental associations with the gardens of home . \n", ' Variety in texture , height and timing of floral display were equally important <unk> <unk> . The beds around each <unk> are planted with a mixture of <unk> <unk> and <unk> <unk> . Low @-@ growing plants are chosen for areas immediately in front of <unk> , ensuring that inscriptions are not obscured and preventing soil from <unk> back during rain . In <unk> where there are pedestal grave markers , dwarf varieties of plants are used instead . \n', " The absence of any form of paving between the <unk> rows contributes to the simplicity of the cemetery designs . Lawn paths add to the garden <unk> , and are irrigated during the dry season in countries where there is insufficient rain . Where irrigation is inappropriate or impractical , dry <unk> is an ecological alternative favoured by the Commission 's <unk> , as is the case in Iraq . <unk> areas require a different approach not only for <unk> , but also to plants and styles of planting . Similarly , there are separate <unk> <unk> in tropical climates . When many <unk> are concentrated within a limited area , like along the Western Front or Gallipoli peninsula , mobile teams of <unk> operate from a local base . Elsewhere , larger <unk> have their own dedicated staff while small <unk> are usually tended by a single <unk> working part @-@ time . \n", '', ' = = Organisation = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Commissioners = = = \n', '', ' The affairs of the <unk> are overseen by a Board of Commissioners . The president of the board is Prince Edward , Duke of Kent , the chairman is United Kingdom Secretary of State for Defence Michael Fallon and the vice @-@ chairman Vice @-@ Admiral Tim Laurence . The members are : the High Commissioner for New Zealand to the United Kingdom <unk> Smith , the High Commissioners of Australia to the United Kingdom Alexander <unk> , the Acting High Commissioner of the Republic of South Africa to the United Kingdom <unk> <unk> , the High Commissioner for India to the United Kingdom <unk> <unk> , the High Commissioner for Canada to the United Kingdom Gordon Campbell , <unk> Strachan , Keith Simpson , <unk> Jones , Edward <unk> , Robert Fox , <unk> Kelly and Lieutenant General Bill <unk> . Victoria Wallace is the Director @-@ General of the <unk> and serves as secretary . The board also has an Honorary Artistic <unk> , Peter <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> structure = = = \n', '', ' The <unk> is headquartered in <unk> , England . <unk> or agencies that are each responsible for a specific geographical area manage the worldwide affairs of the organisation . They are : \n', ' France Area is headed by a director and is responsible for France ( including the island of <unk> ) , Monaco and Switzerland . \n', ' Northern Europe Area , headed by a director and responsible for Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark , <unk> , Germany , Hungary , Latvia , Lithuania , <unk> , Netherlands , Norway , Poland and Sweden . \n', ' United Kingdom Area , headed by a director and responsible for Channel Islands , <unk> Islands , Iceland , Ireland , Isle of Man and the United Kingdom \n', ' Mediterranean Area headed by a director and responsible for <unk> , Algeria , Azerbaijan , Azores , Bahrain , Canary Islands , Croatia , Cyprus , Egypt , Gibraltar , Greece , Israel and Palestine , Italy , Jordan , Lebanon , Libya , Macedonia , Madeira , Malta , <unk> , Morocco , Oman , Portugal , San Marino , Saudi Arabia , Serbia , Spain , Syria , Tunisia , Turkey , United Arab Emirates and <unk> \n', ' Canadian Agency is headed by a secretary @-@ general and responsible for Canada , the entire Americas ( including the Caribbean ) \n', ' Australia , managed by the Office of Australian War Graves in the Australian Department of Veterans Affairs on behalf of the <unk> , is responsible for Australia , Norfolk Island , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands \n', ' New Zealand , managed by the New Zealand Ministry of Culture and Heritage on behalf of the <unk> , is responsible for New Zealand , New Caledonia , Samoa , Society Islands , Tonga and <unk> \n', ' South Africa Agency is headed by a secretary and is responsible for Republic of South Africa , <unk> , Saint Helena and Ascension Island \n', ' Africa , Asia and Pacific Area is headed by a director and is responsible for areas not covered by any of the other bodies . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', " The <unk> 's work is funded predominantly by grants from the governments of the six member states . In the fiscal year 2012 / 13 , these grants amounted to £ 58 @.@ 6 million of the organisation 's £ 66 @.@ 5 million of income . This <unk> to an approximate cost of C $ 85 per commemorated war dead . The contribution from each country is proportionate to the number of graves the <unk> maintains on behalf of that country . The percentage of total annual contributions for which each country is responsible is United Kingdom 78 @.@ 4 % , Canada 10 @.@ 1 % , Australia 6 @.@ 1 % , New Zealand 2 @.@ 1 % , South Africa 2 @.@ 1 % and India 1 @.@ 2 % . \n", '', ' = = <unk> projects and issues = = \n', '', '', ' = = = War Graves <unk> Project = = = \n', '', ' A project is underway to photograph the graves of and memorials to all service personnel from 1914 to the present day and make the images available to the public . The work is being carried out by The War Graves <unk> Project in conjunction with the <unk> . As of August 2013 , the project has recorded 1 @.@ 7 million photographs for <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = <unk> and <unk> = = = \n', '', ' Immediately following the First World War , the British Army remained responsible for the <unk> of remains . The Western Front was divided into sectors and <unk> for bodies by 12 @-@ man <unk> units . Between the Armistice and September 1921 , the <unk> units reburied 204 @,@ <unk> bodies . After 1921 , no further widespread search for bodies was undertaken and in February 1921 responsibility of the <unk> was transferred to the Commission . Despite the <unk> searches , bodies continued to be discovered in numbers . In the three years following the conclusion of the general search 38 @,@ 000 bodies were discovered . In the mid 1920s , 20 to 30 bodies were being discovered weekly . \n', ' The discovery of remains of First and Second World War casualties remains a common occurrence with approximately 30 bodies discovered annually . For example , in 2006 eight bodies of Canadian soldiers from the 78th Battalion ( Winnipeg <unk> ) , <unk> were discovered in a backyard in <unk> , France . In April 2013 , the remains of four British soldiers discovered by a French farmer clearing land with metal detector in 2009 were re @-@ interred at <unk> Cemetery near <unk> , France . In March 2014 , the remains of 20 Commonwealth and 30 German soldiers were discovered in <unk> @-@ le @-@ <unk> , France with the Commonwealth soldiers being subsequently reburied at <unk> British Cemetery . \n', " When the remains of a Commonwealth soldier from the First or Second World War is discovered the Commission is notified and a Commission burial officer tries to collect any associated artifacts that may help in identify the remains . The details are then registered and archived at the Commission 's <unk> the collection of evidence can include artifacts with the remains , <unk> data and DNA . The archival records of the commission are open to the public to permit individuals to conduct their own research . Investigation of archival records by members of the public periodically result in the identification of previously buried casualties . In December 2013 , it was discovered that Second Lieutenant Philip Frederick <unk> , who was previously commemorated on the <unk> Flying Services Memorial , had in fact been buried in a French military cemetery in <unk> , East @-@ Flanders in Belgium . Sergeant Leonard <unk> was identified in 2013 after a visitor to <unk> British Cemetery discovered a <unk> of an unknown sergeant with the Hampshire Regiment killed on 20 July 1918 and was subsequently able to show that only one sergeant from that regiment had been killed in France on that date . \n", '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', ' <unk> , including those of war dead , are targets for vandalism . The gravestones , <unk> and buildings of the Commission are no exception . The Commission believes that graffiti and damage to stonework are usually the <unk> <unk> by young people , noting the number of incidents increases when schoolchildren are on school holidays . <unk> thieves will also steal the bronze swords off the Cross of <unk> , which are now replaced with identical ones made in fibreglass . \n', ' The vandalism of Commission <unk> has also been connected to the participation of Commonwealth countries in contemporary conflicts . In the 1970s , in The Troubles , Commission <unk> in Ireland experienced vandalism . <unk> defaced the central memorial of the <unk> Military Cemetery in northern France with anti @-@ British and anti @-@ American graffiti on 20 March 2003 immediately after the beginning of the Iraq War . On 9 May 2004 , thirty @-@ three <unk> were demolished in the Gaza cemetery , which contains 3 @,@ 691 graves , allegedly in retaliation for the Abu <unk> prisoner abuse scandal . On 24 February 2012 , during the <unk> Civil War , an Islamist militia damaged over 200 <unk> in the <unk> war cemetery as well as the central memorial . \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> or <unk> ( <unk> or <unk> ; c . <unk> – <unk> ) was the tenth Archbishop of Canterbury from 731 to <unk> . Prior to becoming archbishop , he was a monk and abbot of a Benedictine monastery . Besides his ecclesiastical career , <unk> was a writer , and <unk> he composed survive . Another work he composed was on the grammar of the Latin language , which was aimed at advanced students of that language . He was subsequently considered a saint . \n', '', ' = = Biography = = \n', '', " <unk> was a <unk> by birth . His <unk> at Canterbury stated that when he died he was in old age , so perhaps he was born around <unk> . He became a monk at the monastery at <unk> @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Hill in the present @-@ day County of <unk> , and then abbot of that house . Through the influence of King <unk> he was appointed as Archbishop of Canterbury in 731 and was consecrated on 10 June 731 . He was one of a number of <unk> who were appointed to Canterbury during the <unk> and <unk> . Apart from his consecration of the Bishops of Lindsey and <unk> in 733 , <unk> 's period as archbishop appears to have been uneventful . He died in office on 30 July <unk> . Later considered a saint , his feast day is 30 July . \n", '', ' = = <unk> = = \n', '', ' Bede \'s commentary on <unk> calls him a " <unk> <unk> et <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> " ( a man notable for his prudence , devotion and learning ) . These qualities were displayed in the two surviving manuscripts of his <unk> and four of his Ars <unk> . The Ars is one of only two surviving 8th @-@ century Latin <unk> from England , and was based on the works of <unk> and <unk> . The <unk> deal with such diverse topics as philosophy and charity , the five senses and the alphabet , and a book and a pen . The <unk> are formed in <unk> . The grammar is a reworking of <unk> \'s Ars Minor with the addition of information drawn from other <unk> . It was not designed for a newcomer to the Latin language , but is designed for more advanced students . It covers the eight parts of speech through illustrations drawn from classical scholars , although not directly but through other <unk> works . There are also some examples drawn from the <unk> . The work was completed before he became archbishop , and was used not only in England but also on the continent . A recent edition of his works is <unk> Opera <unk> , published in 1968 with some translations into English and German from the original Latin . \n', '', '', ' = German Type <unk> I submarine = \n', '', ' The Type <unk> I was a class of small coastal submarines ( U @-@ boats ) built in Germany at the beginning of the First World War . 20 boats were constructed , most of which went into service with the German Imperial Navy . Boats of this design were also operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( <unk> und <unk> Kriegsmarine or <unk> Kriegsmarine ) and the Bulgarian Navy . The group is sometimes known as the <unk> @-@ 1 class after SM <unk> @-@ 1 , the class leader . In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , it was called the U @-@ 10 class . \n', ' Built to meet the need for small <unk> submarines able to operate in the narrow , shallow seas off Flanders , the vessels were intended to be quickly constructed , then shipped by rail and assembled at their port of operation . The design effort began in mid @-@ August 1914 and by mid @-@ October the first 15 boats were ordered from two German shipyards . The German Imperial Navy subsequently ordered an additional pair of boats to replace two sold to Austria @-@ Hungary , who ordered a further three boats in April 1915 . A total of 20 <unk> Is were built . Construction of the first boats for Germany began in early November 1914 ; all 20 were completed by October 1915 . Several of the first boats underwent trials in German home waters , but the rest were assembled and tested at either Antwerp or Pola . The German boats operated primarily in the Flanders , Baltic , and Constantinople <unk> . The boats were about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) when surfaced and 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) while submerged . All had two bow torpedo tubes and two torpedoes , and were equipped with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . \n', ' In 1918 four of the surviving German boats were converted into coastal <unk> . Of the seventeen boats in German service , two were sold to Austria @-@ Hungary , one was sold to Bulgaria , and nine were lost during the war . One of the five Austro @-@ Hungarian boats was sunk and another mined and not repaired . The five surviving German boats , the four surviving Austro @-@ Hungarian boats , and the Bulgarian boat were all turned over to the Allies after the end of the war and were broken up . \n', '', ' = = Design = = \n', '', " In the earliest stages of the First World War the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast found the German Imperial Navy without submarines suitable to operate in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . By 18 August 1914 , two weeks after the German invasion of Belgium , the planning of a series of small coastal submarines had already begun . \n", ' The German Imperial Navy stipulated that the submarines must be <unk> by rail , which imposed a maximum diameter of 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) . The rushed planning effort — which had been assigned the name " Project 34 " — resulted in the Type <unk> I design , created specifically for operation from Flanders . The boats were to be about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and to displace about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two bow torpedo tubes . \n', ' Boats of the Type <unk> I design were built by two manufacturers , Germaniawerft of Kiel and AG <unk> of <unk> , which led to some variations in boats from the two shipyards . The eight Germaniawerft @-@ built boats were slightly longer at 28 @.@ 10 metres ( 92 ft 2 in ) length overall , while the twelve <unk> @-@ built boats came in 22 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) shorter than their counterparts . All were 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . The boats all displaced 127 tonnes ( 125 long tons ) while surfaced , but differed slightly in displacement submerged . The slightly longer Germaniawerft boats displaced 142 tonnes ( 140 long tons ) while submerged , as they weighed 1 <unk> ( 0 @.@ 98 long tons ) more than the <unk> boats . \n', ' The <unk> of the boats consisted of a single propeller shaft driven by a <unk> ( Germaniawerft ) or <unk> ( <unk> ) diesel engine on the surface , or a <unk> @-@ <unk> electric motor for underwater travel . The <unk> boats were capable of nearly 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) on the surface and a little more than 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) submerged . The Germaniawerft boats were about 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) slower than their <unk> @-@ made counterparts . The boats were equipped with two 45 @-@ <unk> ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and carried two torpedoes . They were also armed with a single 8 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun affixed to the deck . \n', '', ' = = Construction = = \n', '', ' The German Imperial Navy ordered its first fifteen Type <unk> I boats on 15 October 1914 . Eight boats — numbered <unk> @-@ 1 to <unk> @-@ 8 — were ordered from Germaniawerft of Kiel , and seven boats — numbered <unk> @-@ 9 to U @-@ 15 — from AG <unk> of <unk> . After two of the class , <unk> @-@ 1 and <unk> @-@ 15 , were sold in February 1915 to ally Austria @-@ Hungary ( becoming U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ) , the German Imperial Navy ordered <unk> @-@ 16 and <unk> @-@ 17 from <unk> . A further three for Austria @-@ Hungary — U @-@ 15 , U @-@ 16 , and U @-@ 17 — had been ordered from <unk> by April , bringing the total number constructed to 20 . \n', " <unk> @-@ 1 and <unk> @-@ 2 were laid down on 1 November 1914 at the Germaniawerft yard at Kiel . <unk> @-@ 1 was launched on 22 January 1915 , just 75 working days later . <unk> @-@ 2 's launch followed on 13 February . Among the <unk> boats , <unk> @-@ 9 was laid down first , on 6 November 1914 , and launched on 6 February 1915 , a week ahead of <unk> @-@ 2 . These first three boats launched underwent trials in home waters , but most of the other members of the class were shipped via rail and underwent trials at their assembly point . \n", ' The process of shipping the submarines by rail involved breaking the submarines down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway <unk> . Type <unk> I boats destined for service with the Flanders Flotilla made a five @-@ day journey to Antwerp for the <unk> to three @-@ week assembly process . After assembly at Antwerp the boats were towed by barge to Bruges for trials . Boats selected for service in the Mediterranean were sent to the Austro @-@ Hungarian port of Pola for assembly . The total time from departure of the <unk> from the shipyard to operational readiness for the boats was about six weeks . \n', ' By July 1915 all seventeen of the German Imperial Navy Type <unk> Is had been completed . \n', '', ' = = Service = = \n', '', ' During their trials the Type <unk> Is were found to be too small and too slow and had a reputation for being <unk> ; one commander compared his Type <unk> I to a " <unk> machine " . According to authors R. H. Gibson and Maurice <unk> in their 1931 book The German <unk> War , 1914 – 1918 , the <unk> did not have enough power to chase down <unk> while surfaced and lacked the endurance to spend any extended amount of time underwater , exhausting their batteries after little over an hour \'s running . In @-@ service use revealed another problem : with a single propeller shaft / engine combination , if either component failed , the U @-@ boat was almost totally disabled . \n', " Another reported problem with the Type <unk> Is was the tendency to break trim after the firing of torpedoes . The boats were equipped with <unk> tanks designed to flood and offset the loss of the C / 06 torpedo 's 1 @,@ 700 @-@ pound ( 770 kg ) weight , but this system did not always function properly ; as a result , when firing from <unk> depth the boat could <unk> after firing or , if too much weight was taken on , <unk> to the depths . When <unk> @-@ 15 torpedoed and sank Italian submarine <unk> in June 1915 , the tank failed to properly compensate , forcing the entire crew to run to the stern to offset the trim imbalance . \n", ' Despite the problems , the " tin <unk> " , as the Germans referred to them , were in active service from March 1915 through the end of the war , with half of the 20 boats lost during the war . Boats of the class served in three navies : the German Imperial Navy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , and the Bulgarian Navy . In German service , they served primarily in the Flanders Flotilla , the Baltic Flotilla , and the Constantinople Flotilla . \n', '', ' = = = German Imperial Navy = = = \n', '', '', ' = = = = Flanders Flotilla = = = = \n', '', ' The first Type <unk> I to enter service was <unk> @-@ 10 , which formed the nucleus of the Flanders Flotilla , on 27 March 1915 . By the end of April five more Type <unk> I boats had become operational . <unk> @-@ 10 was eventually joined in the Flanders Flotilla by <unk> @-@ 2 , <unk> @-@ 4 , <unk> @-@ 5 , <unk> @-@ 6 , <unk> @-@ 12 , <unk> @-@ 13 , <unk> @-@ 16 , and <unk> @-@ 17 ; of these , only <unk> @-@ 2 made the journey to Flanders by sea rather than rail . \n', ' <unk> @-@ 4 departed on the first patrol from Flanders on 9 April , and was responsible for sinking the first ship sent down by the flotilla . The Type <unk> I boats of the Flanders Flotilla originally patrolled the area between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands , but began patrolling the English Channel after <unk> @-@ 6 pioneered a route past British <unk> nets and mines in the Straits of Dover in late June . \n', " Over the Type <unk> Is ' first year of service , <unk> @-@ 4 and <unk> @-@ 13 were both lost , and <unk> @-@ 2 and <unk> @-@ 5 were transferred to the Baltic Flotilla . In March 1917 , <unk> @-@ 6 ran aground in Dutch waters and was interned for the rest of the war , along with her crew . The four remaining Type <unk> Is in Flanders — <unk> @-@ 10 , <unk> @-@ 12 , <unk> @-@ 16 , <unk> @-@ 17 — were all converted to <unk> by 1918 , having their torpedo tubes removed and replaced with chutes to carry up to eight mines . All but <unk> @-@ 10 were lost in 1918 ; <unk> @-@ 10 , in poor repair and out of service , was scuttled in October 1918 when the Germans evacuated from Flanders . \n", '', ' = = = = Baltic Flotilla = = = = \n', '', ' <unk> @-@ 9 was initially assigned to the Baltic Flotilla , and was joined by <unk> @-@ 2 and <unk> @-@ 5 in early 1916 . All three became training boats at Kiel in 1916 , joining <unk> @-@ 11 in that duty . Little information is available about the Type <unk> I boats operating in the Baltic . \n', '', ' = = = = Constantinople Flotilla = = = = \n', '', ' Four of the German Imperial Navy boats — <unk> @-@ 3 , <unk> @-@ 7 , <unk> @-@ 8 , and <unk> @-@ 14 — were selected for service with the Constantinople Flotilla . All were sent to Pola for assembly and trials there as part of the Pola Flotilla before sailing on to join the Constantinople Flotilla . <unk> @-@ 3 disappeared en route to Constantinople in May 1915 , but the other three arrived there by mid @-@ June . \n', ' The three Type <unk> I boats of the Constantinople Flotilla seem to have patrolled primarily in the Black Sea . <unk> @-@ 8 was transferred to the Bulgarian Navy in May 1916 , and <unk> @-@ 7 disappeared in the Black Sea in October 1916 , leaving <unk> @-@ 14 as the sole remaining German Type <unk> I in the flotilla ; she was surrendered at Sevastopol in November 1918 to French armies stationed there during the Russian Civil War . \n', '', ' = = = Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy = = = \n', '', ' <unk> @-@ 1 and the still incomplete <unk> @-@ 15 were sold to the Austria @-@ Hungary in February 1915 ; both were dismantled and shipped to Pola in May . After one cruise under the German flag , each boat was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The pair — renamed U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 , respectively — were joined by U @-@ 15 , U @-@ 16 , and U @-@ 17 in October . Known as the U @-@ 10 or the <unk> ( English : <unk> ) class as a part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the five boats operated primarily in the Adriatic in patrols off Italy and <unk> . U @-@ 10 ( ex <unk> @-@ 1 ) hit a mine in July 1918 and was <unk> , but had not been repaired by the end of the war . U @-@ 16 was sunk after she torpedoed an Italian destroyer in October 1916 , and the remaining three ( and the <unk> U @-@ 10 ) were ceded to Italy at the end of the war . \n', '', ' = = = Bulgarian Navy = = = \n', '', " After <unk> @-@ 8 was transferred to the Bulgarian Navy in May 1916 , she was renamed <unk> No. 18 ( in Cyrillic : <unk> No. 18 ) . She was Bulgaria 's first submarine , and was engaged primarily in coastal defense duties off Bulgaria 's main Black Sea port of <unk> . <unk> No. 18 survived the war and was ceded to France after the Treaty of <unk> @-@ sur @-@ Seine . \n", '', ' = = List of Type <unk> I submarines = = \n', '', ' 20 Type <unk> I submarines were built , 17 for the German Imperial Navy and three for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Two of the German submarines — <unk> @-@ 1 and <unk> @-@ 15 — were sold to Austria @-@ Hungary and commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as U @-@ 10 and U @-@ 11 , respectively . Those two and a further three built by AG <unk> comprised the virtually identical U @-@ 10 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Another of the German submarines , <unk> @-@ 8 , was sold to Bulgaria in May 1916 , becoming <unk> No. 18 . \n', '', ' = = = German Imperial Navy = = = \n', '', ' SM <unk> @-@ 1 ( became the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 10 , July 1915 ) \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 2 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 3 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 4 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 5 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 6 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 7 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 8 ( became the Bulgarian <unk> No. 18 , May 1916 ) \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 9 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 10 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 11 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 12 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 13 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 14 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 15 ( became the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 11 , June 1915 ) \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 16 \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 17 \n', '', ' = = = Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy = = = \n', '', ' In the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy the Type <unk> I boats were known as the U @-@ 10 class , which consisted of two former German Type <unk> I boats and three built specifically for Austria @-@ Hungary . \n', ' SM U @-@ 10 ( the former German <unk> @-@ 1 ) \n', ' SM U @-@ 11 ( the former German <unk> @-@ 15 ) \n', ' SM U @-@ 15 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) \n', ' SM U @-@ 16 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) \n', ' SM U @-@ 17 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) \n', " In addition , four of the German Type <unk> Is assigned to the Pola Flotilla based at the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy 's main naval base at Pola were assigned Austro @-@ Hungarian designations . \n", ' SM <unk> @-@ 3 ( as U @-@ 9 ) \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 7 ( as U @-@ 7 ) \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 8 ( as U @-@ 8 ) \n', ' SM <unk> @-@ 14 ( as U @-@ 26 ) \n', ' These four boats remained under commission in the German Imperial Navy , retained German crews and commanders , and received orders from the German flotilla commander at Pola . \n', '', ' = = = Bulgarian Navy = = = \n', '', ' Germany and Bulgaria negotiated the purchase of two <unk> I boats for the Bulgarian Navy , <unk> @-@ 7 and <unk> @-@ 8 , in 1916 . Two crews of Bulgarian sailors were sent to Kiel for training . Before the purchase could be completed , <unk> @-@ 7 was sunk , leaving only one boat for Bulgaria . On 25 May 1916 , <unk> @-@ 8 was officially transferred to Bulgaria for the remainder of the war . \n', ' <unk> No. 18 ( the former German <unk> @-@ 8 ) \n', ' Key \n', '', '', ' = Military history of Gibraltar during World War II = \n', '', " The military history of Gibraltar during World War II exemplifies Gibraltar 's position as a British fortress since the early 18th century and as a vital factor in British military strategy , both as a foothold on the continent of Europe , and as a <unk> of British sea power . During World War II , Gibraltar served a vital role in both the Atlantic Theatre and the Mediterranean Theatre , controlling virtually all naval traffic into and out of the Mediterranean Sea from the Atlantic Ocean . \n", ' In addition to its commanding position , Gibraltar provided a strongly defended harbour from which ships could operate in both the Atlantic and the Mediterranean . Force H , under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral James <unk> was based in Gibraltar and had the task of maintaining naval superiority and providing a strong escort for convoys to and from the besieged island of Malta . During the course of the war , Gibraltar came under aerial bombardment from <unk> French aircraft and from aircraft of the Italian Royal Air Force ( Regia <unk> ) based on Sardinia . Additionally , the fortress was the focus of underwater attacks by the Italian Royal Navy ( Regia Marina ) commando <unk> unit ( <unk> <unk> <unk> ) and their human torpedoes . This Italian unit was based on the interned Italian ship SS <unk> in the nearby Spanish harbour of <unk> . A number of attacks were also carried out by Spanish and <unk> agents acting on behalf of the German <unk> . \n', ' Inside the Rock of Gibraltar itself , miles of tunnels were excavated from the limestone . <unk> of rock were blasted out to build an " underground city " . In huge man @-@ made <unk> , barracks , offices , and a fully equipped hospital were constructed , complete with an operating theatre and X @-@ ray equipment . \n', ' Operation <unk> , the Allied invasion of French North Africa in November 1942 , was coordinated from the " Rock " . General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who was given command of the operation , set up his headquarters in Gibraltar during the planning phases of the operation . Following the successful completion of the North African campaign and the surrender of Italy in 1943 , Gibraltar \'s role shifted from a forward operating base to a rear @-@ area supply position . The harbour continued to operate dry docks and supply depots for the convoy routes through the Mediterranean until V @-@ E Day in 1945 . \n', '', ' = = Prelude and evacuation = = \n', '', " World War II dramatically changed the lives of <unk> . The decision to enforce mass evacuation in order to increase the strength of the Rock with more military and naval personnel meant that most <unk> ( some for up to ten years ) had nowhere to call ' home ' . Only those civilians with essential jobs were allowed to stay but it gave the entire community a sense of being ' British ' by sharing in the war effort . \n", ' In early June 1940 , about 13 @,@ 500 <unk> were shipped to Casablanca in French Morocco . However , following the capitulation of the French to the German armies later in June 1940 , the new Pro @-@ German French <unk> Government found the presence of <unk> <unk> in Casablanca an embarrassment and sought opportunities for their removal . The opportunity soon arose when 15 British cargo vessels arrived under Commodore <unk> , <unk> 15 @,@ 000 French servicemen who had been rescued from <unk> . Once their own rescued servicemen had disembarked , the ships were interned until they agreed to take away all the <unk> . Although <unk> was unable to obtain permission to clean and <unk> his ships ( and contrary to British Admiralty orders which forbade the taking on of <unk> ) , when he saw the mass of civilians pouring through the dockyards , he opened up his <unk> for boarding . Just beforehand , the British fleet had destroyed a number of French warships at <unk> el @-@ <unk> in order to prevent them ending up in German hands . The attack , during which 1 @,@ <unk> French sailors died , led to high tensions , which were evident when families were forced at bayonet point by French troops to board taking only what they could carry , leaving many possessions behind . However , when they arrived at Gibraltar , the Governor would not allow them to land , fearing that once the <unk> were back on the Rock , it would be virtually impossible to evacuate them a second time . <unk> gathered in John <unk> Square in the centre of Gibraltar as the news broke , speeches were made and two City <unk> accompanied by the Acting President of the Exchange and Commercial Library went to see the Governor ( Sir Clive <unk> ) to ask that the <unk> be allowed to land . After receiving instructions from London , a landing was allowed as long as the <unk> returned when other ships arrived to take them away from the Rock , and by 13 July the re @-@ evacuation back to Gibraltar had been completed . \n', ' British conservative politician Oliver Stanley agreed to accept the <unk> in the United Kingdom , but he argued with Gibraltar over the number of people involved . The Governor , he declared , had given the number of <unk> first as 13 @,@ 000 , then as 14 @,@ 000 and finally as 16 @,@ 000 . He asked for the situation to be clarified , stressing the shortage of accommodation in Britain and insisting that only 13 @,@ 000 could be accepted , 2 @,@ 000 of whom were to be sent to the Portuguese Atlantic island of Madeira . The situation , replied General <unk> on 19 July , " is that this is a fortress liable to heavy and immediate attack and there should be no civilians here whereas there are 22 @,@ 000 . The 13 @,@ 000 was the number sent to Morocco , and more would have been sent had the situation there not altered . " In London the <unk> were placed in the hands of the Ministry of Health , and many were housed in Kensington area . Concern for them in Gibraltar mounted as the air raids against London intensified , coupled with the arrival of <unk> letters , describing the circumstances in which the <unk> were living . \n', ' In September rumours were already circulating among the <unk> , and in Gibraltar , that the possibility of re @-@ evacuating the <unk> once more was being <unk> , this time the destination being Jamaica , in the West Indies . After much contention , it was decided to send a party directly from Gibraltar to the island , and 1 @,@ <unk> <unk> left for Jamaica direct , on 9 October , with more following later on . However <unk> followed and the demands were met , partly for strategic reasons and the lack of available shipping . The situation at the end of 1940 , therefore , was that approximately 2 @,@ 000 <unk> were in Jamaica and a lesser number in Madeira , with the bulk of around 10 @,@ 000 housed in the London area . \n', '', ' = = Royal Air Force involvement : 1939 – 1941 = = \n', '', ' Construction of a solid surface runway began in late 1939 and in 1940 it was proposed to extend the existing runway to a length of 1 @,@ 550 yards ( 1 @,@ <unk> m ) . The land <unk> commenced towards the end of 1941 along with the construction of an RAF camp at the " North Front " , now RAF Gibraltar . The RAF dispatched their next squadron to Gibraltar at this time and it was in September 1939 that war with Germany was declared and the strong possibility of German submarines concentrating in the Strait of Gibraltar and using Spanish port facilities , <unk> large in Admiralty thinking . So at 09 : 00 ( UTC ) on the 9 September 1939 , No. 202 Squadron RAF was ordered to Gibraltar , loaded to the <unk> with equipment . \n', " On 25 September 1939 , No 200 ( Coastal ) Group was formed as a subordinate formation to HQ RAF Mediterranean in control of No 202 <unk> . The Group 's function was the control of Royal Air Force units operating from Gibraltar . In late 1940 the Group was transferred to Coastal Command . Later a combined HQ was formed which commenced operations in early 1942 . \n", '', ' = = <unk> French attacks : 1940 = = \n', '', ' On 18 July 1940 , after the attack on the French Fleet at <unk> @-@ el @-@ <unk> by the British , the <unk> government authorized a bombing raid of Gibraltar as a response . Little damage was reported to have been done . \n', ' On Tuesday , 24 September , the Italian Stefani news agency reported : " As a reprisal for the bombardment of <unk> yesterday morning , one @-@ hundred @-@ and @-@ twenty French aircraft based in Morocco attacked Gibraltar . " On the same day , the United Press Agency reported : " The French government has issued an official denial of reports , according to which French aircraft were said to have attacked Gibraltar . Up until now , no <unk> have been undertaken . " But the United Press report ended on an ominous note with : " French <unk> are imminent . " \n', ' Again , on the same day , the <unk> French government issued orders for the naval base and city of Gibraltar to be bombarded . As a result , six bomber squadrons of the <unk> French Air Force ( <unk> de l <unk> de <unk> ) and four squadrons of the <unk> French Navy ( Marine <unk> de <unk> ) were employed in the operation . The 64 bombers flew from bases in <unk> , <unk> ( in Algeria ) , <unk> , <unk> , and Port <unk> ( in Morocco ) . The French action was approved by both the German Armistice Commission and the Italian Armistice Commission . \n', ' No British aircraft were encountered and much damage was done in the area south of the fortress . The South Mole and a large ship in the harbour were heavily damaged . In the northern part of Gibraltar , fires broke out . \n', ' On 25 September , the French returned with a larger force of eighty @-@ three bombers to cause additional damage to the naval base and harbour installations . Again , aircraft of the British Royal Air Force made no appearance . However , the French crews did report encountering heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . One <unk> 451 bomber was lost and 13 other aircraft were lightly damaged during the two days of bombing attacks . The British armed trawler <unk> Stella Sirius was sunk by bombs . \n', ' The air attack on 25 September was the last by <unk> forces on Gibraltar . \n', '', ' = = Operation Felix : 1940 – 1941 = = \n', '', ' The Rock came through the war relatively unscathed but , given its strategic importance , Germany made plans to capture Gibraltar . <unk> " Felix " , the plan which was signed by Adolf Hitler himself was formulated at the highest level of command . With or without permission , Germany would take entry through Spain and attack Gibraltar driving the British out of the Western Mediterranean . The Strait would be effectively closed to the Allies once Gibraltar was in German hands , forcing Asia @-@ bound Allied shipping to steam all the way around Africa rather than to proceed to the east via the shorter route through the Mediterranean and the Suez Canal . The Rock was to be heavily dive bombed by planes leaving France but landing afterward at Spanish air bases . To deny a possible Spanish capture of the base , the German planners decided that the final attack to seize Gibraltar was to be made by German troops alone . \n', ' <unk> failure at the highest levels of government prevented the operation from occurring at the beginning of 1941 which had been drawn up in detail by the Wehrmacht in the summer and autumn of 1940 . \n', " General Ludwig <unk> 's <unk> Corps would conduct the actual attack on the Rock . The assault forces would comprise the Infantry Regiment <unk> , the <unk> Regiment of the 1st Mountain Division , 26 medium and heavy artillery battalions , three observation battalions , three engineer battalions , two smoke battalions , a detachment of 150 <unk> , and up to 150 miniature remote controlled demolition vehicles ( <unk> ) , packed with high explosives . \n", " As part of a combined @-@ force operation , the German Air Force ( Luftwaffe ) would contribute Ju <unk> , <unk> , <unk> , three light AA battalions , and three heavy AA battalions . Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine would cooperate by using U @-@ boats to interfere with British naval movement and <unk> coastal batteries to further discourage the Royal Navy . \n", " On 10 March 1941 , with Operation Barbarossa looming , Felix was amended to Operation Felix @-@ Heinrich , whereby German troops would be withdrawn from the USSR to capture Gibraltar . As a result of Spanish dictator Francisco Franco 's <unk> , the operation was postponed , modified , and ultimately abandoned . \n", '', ' = = Italian bombing of Gibraltar = = \n', '', ' From Sardinia , Italian <unk> <unk> bombers attacked Gibraltar several times , mainly in 1942 . The last raids on Gibraltar were done during the 1943 Allied landing in Algeria , when those bombers hit successfully even the <unk> port . \n', ' The only unit of the Regia <unk> ( Royal Air Force ) ever to fly the <unk> <unk> was the " <unk> Long @-@ Range <unk> Squadron " . This unit was formed in May 1941 around the first machines that came off the assembly lines . The training of the crews lasted far longer than anticipated and only in June 1942 the <unk> became operational . The most spectacular raids with the P. 108 bombers were flown in October 1942 when several night attacks against Gibraltar were undertaken from Sardinia . \n', ' After the armistice of <unk> ( 8 September ) , the German @-@ allied Italian Social Republic launched at least two raids on Gibraltar : one on the night of 4 – 5 June 1944 with ten <unk> aircraft and another on 6 June with nine aircraft . Both sorties were undertaken by the <unk> <unk> " <unk> – <unk> " . \n', '', ' = = Italian <unk> raids 1940 – 1943 = = \n', '', ' Known as the " <unk> <unk> Horse of Gibraltar " , <unk> <unk> <unk> , an Italian commando <unk> unit created during the <unk> government , engaged in numerous attacks against the harbour at Gibraltar . \n', ' Gibraltar was a very tempting target for the Italians , who saw it as a refuge for British warships and allied merchant shipping . The Italian <unk> originally used a Spanish villa ( Villa <unk> ) located two miles ( 3 km ) from Gibraltar owned by an Italian officer who had married a Spanish woman named <unk> <unk> . Their base was shifted later to the Italian <unk> SS <unk> , interned in <unk> . \n', '', ' = = <unk> <unk> from Spain = = \n', '', ' Lesser known than the Italian actions were the sabotage operations and <unk> @-@ mine attacks carried out by Spanish and <unk> agents recruited in the <unk> de Gibraltar by the Germans . The <unk> contacted a Spanish staff officer from <unk> de Gibraltar , Lieutenant Colonel <unk> <unk> <unk> , a Spanish officer , member of the <unk> and coordinator of the intelligence operations in the <unk> , to establish a network of <unk> with access to Gibraltar . <unk> <unk> designated Emilio <unk> <unk> , also a member of <unk> , as operations chief of the organisation . Most of the recruits for the sabotage operations were Spaniards from the <unk> . A combination of financial reward , ideological commitment and some threats and <unk> were used to gather a significant number of agents . According to the British intelligence , there were at least 183 Spaniards and <unk> involved in the espionage and sabotage operations against Gibraltar . \n', ' <unk> operations were ordered from Berlin in the late autumn of 1940 , but actual work did not start until early 1941 . The first operations were unsuccessful . A first attempt to smuggle a bomb into Gibraltar was <unk> , as the timing device was faulty . In February there was a large explosion in the North Tunnel , and in April a bomb blew up near the airfield . In June 1941 , however , the British intelligence <unk> a new attempt , by a German agent , to attach a mine alongside an Allied cargo ship . Another attempt failed when <unk> placed a bomb inside an ammunition store but was not able to bring the explosive . It was not until 1942 that the operations begun to succeed . In January 1942 , two Spanish agents manage to destroy two aircraft at the North Front landing strip . \n', ' <unk> , trained and equipped by the Germans , the <unk> sank the armed trawler <unk> Erin , and destroyed the auxiliary minesweeper <unk> <unk> , which resulted in the deaths of six British <unk> on 18 January 1942 . <unk> was assisted by the Spanish naval commander of <unk> <unk> , Manuel Romero Hume , who allowed him to beach a <unk> there . The British intelligence was able however to counteract the sabotage operations . In March 1942 , a <unk> , José Key , one of the most prominent agents working for the Germans , responsible for the collection of information on military movements for the <unk> was arrested and executed in <unk> Prison in late 1942 . By September 1942 , <unk> , whose activities were closely monitored by the British at that time , resigned and left Carlos <unk> , his second in command , in charge of the operations . In late 1942 , the German headquarters in Berlin ordered the sabotage operations being expanded . In early 1943 , the arrival of an experienced head of <unk> operations in Spain improved the outreach of the operations . \n', " In March 1943 an ammunition dump was blown up by <unk> 's agents . The British , growing suspicious of some of the <unk> , banned them from entering Gibraltar . This forced the <unk> to ask <unk> for new personnel . A <unk> working on the Rock , José Martín <unk> , was responsible for the explosion and fire at a large fuel tank at <unk> Island on 30 June 1943 ; this mission , however , would be the first and the last for <unk> , because he was cornered and arrested by British authorities in August , when he tried to smuggle a bomb into a weapons magazine inside <unk> Staff Cave . After being sentenced to death , he was hanged on 11 January 1944 in Gibraltar by British executioner Albert <unk> . A member of an unrelated <unk> sabotage network , Luis López <unk> @-@ <unk> ( also arrested in 1943 ) was executed by <unk> on the same day . <unk> himself was put under arrest by the Spanish police and <unk> . He would be a free man again in December , when he rejoined the <unk> in Madrid , under direct orders of Wolfgang <unk> , <unk> <unk> , head of the sabotage section in Spain . After a <unk> attempt against the life of pro @-@ allied General José Enrique <unk> , <unk> by <unk> <unk> network 's agent Juan José <unk> and a meeting between Anthony Eden and the Spanish ambassador at London , <unk> Fitz @-@ James Stuart , <unk> activities around Gibraltar came to an end . \n", '', ' = = Operation <unk> : 1941 – 1942 = = \n', '', ' Operation <unk> was a top @-@ secret British stay @-@ behind <unk> mission that was only to be implemented if Gibraltar was captured by the Axis Powers . Six men were to be sealed in a cave and left with only enough supplies for a year . The volunteers — two doctors , three <unk> and their leader — would run an observation post with one 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) by 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) slit looking over the harbour and a concealed outdoor terrace over the Mediterranean . The team would then wire back all shipping movements to the British Admiralty . \n', ' They were told there would be no way out and anyone who died within the chamber would have to be embalmed and cemented into the brick floor . Only if Germany was defeated within their first year would they be released . \n', ' As the threat of invasion was clearly felt in late 1941 , an idea for a series of secret observation posts ( first in Gibraltar and later in other places like Malta and Aden ) was put together under Operation <unk> . \n', ' Work in Gibraltar began immediately under Commander Geoffrey <unk> and his chief engineer Colonel Fordham . The site chosen at Lord <unk> \'s Battery on the southern tip of the Rock already had an existing <unk> scheme for a shelter . Extensive trials of the equipment began in January 1942 under the eye of MI6 radio expert Colonel Richard Gambier @-@ Parry . Much thought was also given to the type of men needed for such a strange and demanding task . A member of Scott ’ s ill @-@ <unk> expedition to the Antarctic , George Murray <unk> was called up as Surgeon @-@ Commander to advise on survival techniques . There were practical matters such as diet , exercise , sanitation , and clothing to consider as well as vital " psychology of the personnel " . The full team was in place by the end of summer 1942 and their cavern fully equipped and ready for occupation . A comprehensive manual was prepared on all aspects of the operation and it was considered that similar secret lookout posts should be prepared throughout the world in the event of future wars . However , Operation <unk> was never needed , as Adolf Hitler turned his attention away from Gibraltar and towards the Eastern Front . \n', ' The operation had been <unk> in mystery until the discovery of papers at the Public Record Office in <unk> UK . Previously in the 1960s , details of the story were told to a journalist by his intelligence service contacts and he wrote these up as " Operation Monkey " , yet facts were very sparse . \n', ' In 1997 " Stay Behind Cave " ( as it was nicknamed ) was discovered in Gibraltar by the Gibraltar <unk> Group , but no account was ever obtained from anyone associated with the mission . The discovery came about when the group encountered a strong gust of wind in a tunnel . Further searching led them to break through a wall into chambers which had never been used and had remained sealed for over 50 years . \n', ' In November 2006 Jim <unk> and Sergeant Major Pete Jackson , senior tunnel guide with the Royal Gibraltar Regiment , met possibly the only member of Operation <unk> still alive when they travelled to meet Dr. W. A. Bruce Cooper at his home in England . Cooper , 92 at the time , provided an opportunity to shed light on the operation with his direct involvement in the mission as a Surgeon @-@ Lieutenant in the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve ( <unk> ) . He recalled stories about his colleagues , his training , and his feelings about the task . \n', '', ' = = Mediterranean U @-@ boat Campaign : 1941 – 1944 = = \n', '', " The Mediterranean U @-@ boat Campaign lasted approximately from 21 September 1941 to May 1944 . The Kriegsmarine tried to isolate Gibraltar , Malta , and Suez and disrupt Britain 's trade routes . More than sixty U @-@ boats were sent to <unk> Allied shipping in the Mediterranean Sea . Many of these U @-@ boats were themselves attacked negotiating the Strait of Gibraltar controlled by Britain . Nine U @-@ boats were sunk while attempting passage and ten more were damaged . \n", '', ' = = North African Campaign : 1942 = = \n', '', ' Plans for the Allied counter offensive after the attack on Pearl Harbor were ongoing by mid @-@ 1942 . An invasion of Europe in 1943 would be <unk> , but the allies could attack the " soft <unk> of Europe " through the Mediterranean , as Prime Minister Winston Churchill put it . <unk> by President Franklin Roosevelt and Churchill and code named Operation <unk> , the plan was to occupy French North Africa : Morocco , Algeria , and Tunisia . From these French colonies , attacks could be launched that would drive Italy out of the war . \n', ' In July 1942 , Lieutenant General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed Allied Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Operation <unk> . Churchill placed Gibraltar under the command of General Eisenhower as the temporary headquarters for this , the first large @-@ scale Anglo @-@ American operation of the war . He arrived in Gibraltar on 5 November 1942 to take over , not just command of Operation <unk> itself , but also military command of Gibraltar . \n', " General Eisenhower stayed at The <unk> , the official Governor 's residence , but his operational headquarters were in a small chamber in a tunnel in the heart of the Rock . In his memoirs General Eisenhower wrote : \n", ' The subterranean passages under the Rock provided the sole available office space , and in them was located the signal equipment by which we expected to keep in touch with the commanders of the three assault forces . The eternal darkness of the tunnels was here and there partially pierced by <unk> electric bulbs . <unk> , cold air in block @-@ long passages was heavy with stagnation and did not noticeably respond to the <unk> efforts of electric fans . Through the arched ceilings came a constant <unk> , <unk> , <unk> of surface water that faithfully but <unk> <unk> off the seconds of the <unk> , almost <unk> , wait which always occurs between completion of a military plan and the moment action begins . \n', ' One hundred thousand soldiers on the high seas in a multitude of transports <unk> on Gibraltar . More than 400 aircraft of all types were <unk> into the dispersal areas around the Gibraltar runway . Fighters had been shipped in <unk> and assembled on the airfield . Every available area of storage was taken up with ammunition , fuel , and other essential supplies . 168 American pilots were housed in the RAF <unk> at North Front . \n', ' On 8 November 1942 , <unk> aircraft from Gibraltar landed on captured North African airfields . \n', ' From their headquarters in Gibraltar , General Eisenhower and Admiral Sir Andrew Browne Cunningham directed Operation <unk> , the first major combined combat operation during World War II involving American and British forces . \n', '', ' = = = War tunnels = = = \n', '', ' Given that Gibraltar was a small town with only a few defences protecting it , the solution was to build a massive series of tunnels and chambers inside the natural protection of the Rock of Gibraltar . This " town " inside the Rock contained its own power station , water supply , and hospital . Some soldiers posted here would not see the light of day for months on end . Two Canadian engineer companies , the only soldiers with diamond @-@ tipped drills and 5 British engineer companies , added some 30 miles ( 48 km ) of such tunnels , a feat thought impossible at the time . That was enough to hold all 30 @,@ 000 troops on the rock . Today , the rock has more underground tunnels than roads . \n', '', ' = = Death of Władysław <unk> : 1943 = = \n', '', " On 4 July 1943 , a Liberator bomber from RAF Transport Command took off from Gibraltar for England . On board was General Władysław <unk> , Prime Minister of Poland 's London @-@ based government in exile and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of its armed forces , returning from visiting Polish troops in the Middle East . \n", " The aircraft climbed normally from the runway , levelled off to gather speed but then suddenly lost height and crashed into the harbour . The 62 @-@ year @-@ old general died , along with 15 others . The sole survivor was the Czech @-@ born pilot , Eduard <unk> , who was rescued by an RAF launch . The bodies of five passengers and crew , including <unk> 's daughter , were never found . \n", " The coffins of General <unk> and his Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff , General <unk> , were draped in the Polish National Flag and lay in state in the Cathedral of St. Mary the <unk> . After a <unk> Mass , the bodies were carried in procession to the <unk> Dockyard with full Military Honours to be shipped to London in anticipation that General <unk> 's remains would one day be returned to a liberated Poland . The route to the dockyard was lined by British troops and the coffins carried and escorted by Polish <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = Investigation = = = \n', '', ' In 1943 a British Court of Inquiry investigated the crash of <unk> \'s Liberator II <unk> , but was unable to determine the probable cause , finding only that it was an accident and the " aircraft became uncontrollable for reasons which cannot be established " . A popular theory was insufficient technical maintenance leading to <unk> aircraft controls . Despite this finding , the political context of the event , coupled with a variety of curious circumstances , immediately gave rise to speculation that <unk> \'s death had been no accident , and may in fact have been the direct result of a Soviet , British or even Polish conspiracy . \n', '', ' = = Aftermath = = \n', '', ' The surrender of Italy in September 1943 lifted any possible objections to the return of the <unk> to the Rock . As a result , a <unk> Board was established in November , and at a meeting of the Board on 8 February 1944 repatriation priorities were finally agreed . On 6 April 1944 the first group of 1 @,@ 367 <unk> arrived on the Rock directly from the United Kingdom and on 28 May , the first repatriation party left Madeira , and by the end of 1944 only 520 non @-@ priority <unk> remained on the island . \n', ' In London , home @-@ <unk> were making claims on the <unk> ’ wartime accommodation and 500 <unk> were re @-@ evacuated to Scotland and 3 @,@ 000 to camps in Northern Ireland . Although the Governor , Lt. General Sir Noel Mason @-@ MacFarlane , fought <unk> on behalf of the <unk> and did not accept the lack of accommodation as a sufficient reason for the delays . As late as 1947 there were still 2 @,@ 000 in Northern Irish camps . The last of the <unk> did not see the Rock again until 1951 . \n', '', ' = = See Also = = \n', '', ' Military history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War \n', '', '', ' = <unk> = \n', '', ' <unk> ( Latin : Marcus <unk> <unk> Caesar Augustus ; 8 November , 30 AD – 27 January , 98 AD ) was Roman Emperor from 96 to 98 . <unk> became Emperor at the age of sixty @-@ five , after a lifetime of imperial service under <unk> and the rulers of the <unk> dynasty . Under <unk> , he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the <unk> conspiracy of 65 . Later , as a loyalist to the <unk> , he attained <unk> in 71 and 90 during the <unk> of <unk> and <unk> respectively . \n', ' On 18 September 96 , <unk> was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving members of the <unk> Guard and several of his freedmen . On the same day , <unk> was declared emperor by the Roman Senate . This was the first time the Senate elected a Roman Emperor . As the new ruler of the Roman Empire , he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the <unk> government of <unk> . \n', " <unk> 's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army . A revolt by the <unk> Guard in October 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir . After some <unk> <unk> adopted Trajan , a young and popular general , as his successor . After barely fifteen months in office , <unk> died of natural causes on 27 January 98 . Upon his death he was succeeded and deified by Trajan . \n", " Although much of his life remains obscure , <unk> was considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient historians . <unk> 's greatest success was his ability to ensure a peaceful transition of power after his death , thus founding the <unk> – <unk> dynasty . \n", '', ' = = Early career = = \n', '', '', ' = = = Family = = = \n', '', ' Marcus <unk> <unk> was born in the village of <unk> , 50 kilometers north of Rome , to the family of Marcus <unk> <unk> , <unk> Consul in 40 , and <unk> <unk> . Ancient sources report the date as either 30 or 35 . He had at least one attested sister , named <unk> , who married Lucius <unk> <unk> <unk> , the brother of the future Emperor <unk> . \n', " Like <unk> , the founder of the <unk> dynasty , <unk> was a member of the Italian nobility rather than one of the elite of Rome . Nevertheless , the <unk> were among the most esteemed and prominent political families of the late Republic and early Empire , attaining <unk> in each successive generation . The direct ancestors of <unk> on his father 's side , all named Marcus <unk> <unk> , were associated with imperial circles since the time of Emperor Augustus ( 27 BC – AD 14 ) . \n", " His great @-@ grandfather was Consul in 36 BC ( in replacement , and abdicated ) , and Governor of Asia in the same year . His grandfather became Consul <unk> in July of either 21 or 22 , and was known as a personal friend of Emperor <unk> ( AD 14 – 37 ) , accompanying the emperor during his voluntary seclusion on Capri from 23 onwards , dying in 33 . <unk> 's father , finally , attained the <unk> in 40 under emperor <unk> ( 37 – 41 ) . The <unk> were connected with the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty through the marriage of <unk> <unk> 's brother <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> , the great @-@ granddaughter of <unk> . \n", '', ' = = = Imperial service = = = \n', '', " Not much of <unk> 's early life or career is recorded , but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career . He was <unk> @-@ elect in the year 65 and , like his ancestors , moved in imperial circles as a skilled diplomat and strategist . As an advisor to Emperor <unk> , he successfully helped detect and expose the <unk> conspiracy of 65 . <unk> what his contribution to the investigation was is not known but his services must have been considerable , since they earned him rewards equal to those of <unk> 's guard prefect <unk> . He received <unk> honors — which was usually reserved for military victories — and the right to have his statues placed throughout the palace . \n", ' According to the contemporary poet Martial , <unk> also held <unk> \'s literary abilities in high esteem , <unk> him as the " <unk> of our time " . Another prominent member of <unk> \'s entourage was <unk> , an old and respected general who had celebrated military <unk> during the 40s . It appears <unk> befriended <unk> during his time as an imperial advisor , and may have asked him to watch over <unk> \'s youngest son <unk> when <unk> departed for the Jewish war in 67 . \n', " The suicide of <unk> on 9 June 68 brought the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty to an end , leading to the chaotic Year of the Four <unk> , which saw the successive rise and fall of the emperors <unk> , <unk> and <unk> , until the accession of <unk> on 21 December 69 . <unk> nothing is known of <unk> 's whereabouts during 69 , but despite the fact that <unk> was his brother @-@ in @-@ law , he appears to have been one of the earliest and strongest supporters of the <unk> . \n", " For services unknown , he was rewarded with a <unk> early in <unk> 's reign in 71 . This was a remarkable honour , not only because he held this office early under the new regime , but also because it was an ordinary <unk> ( instead of a less prestigious <unk> <unk> ) , making him one of the few non @-@ <unk> to be honoured in this way under <unk> . After 71 <unk> again disappears from historical record , presumably continuing his career as an inconspicuous advisor under <unk> ( 69 – 79 ) and his sons Titus ( 79 – 81 ) and <unk> ( 81 – 96 ) . \n", ' He re @-@ emerges during the revolt of <unk> in 89 . On 1 January , 89 , the governor of <unk> Superior , Lucius Antonius <unk> , and his two <unk> at <unk> , <unk> XIV <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> against the Roman Empire with the aid of a tribe of the <unk> . The governor of <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , moved to the region at once , assisted by the <unk> of <unk> , Titus <unk> <unk> . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at <unk> <unk> punished . The <unk> <unk> were sent to the front of <unk> , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded . \n', ' <unk> opened the year following the revolt by sharing the <unk> with <unk> . Again , the honour suggested <unk> had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to what he did during the <unk> conspiracy under <unk> . Alternatively , <unk> may have selected <unk> as his colleague to emphasise the stability and status @-@ <unk> of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed , and the Empire could return to order . \n', '', ' = = Emperor = = \n', '', '', ' = = = <unk> = = = \n', '', " On 18 September , 96 , <unk> was assassinated in a palace conspiracy organised by court officials . The <unk> <unk> , the <unk> Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus <unk> <unk> emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . <unk> was old and <unk> , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in <unk> 's assassination . \n", " According to <unk> <unk> , the conspirators approached <unk> as a potential successor prior to the assassination , which indicates that he was at least aware of the plot . <unk> by contrast does not mention <unk> , but he may have omitted his role out of <unk> . Considering the works of <unk> were published under <unk> 's direct descendants Trajan and <unk> , it would have been less than sensitive of him to suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder . On the other hand , <unk> lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known <unk> loyalist his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe <unk> was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke . \n", ' Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health , <unk> was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and <unk> . Furthermore , he had close connections with the <unk> dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate . <unk> had seen the anarchy which had resulted from the death of <unk> ; he knew that to <unk> even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict . Rather than decline the invitation and risk <unk> , he accepted . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither the Senate nor <unk> appears to have been involved in the conspiracy against <unk> . \n', ' Following the accession of <unk> as emperor , the Senate passed <unk> <unk> on <unk> : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . In many instances , existing portraits of <unk> , such as those found on the <unk> <unk> , were simply <unk> to fit the likeness of <unk> . This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . In addition , the vast palace which <unk> had erected on the <unk> Hill , known as the <unk> Palace , was renamed the " House of the People " , and <unk> himself took up residence in <unk> \'s former villa in the Gardens of <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Administration = = = \n', '', " The change of government was welcome particularly to the <unk> , who had been harshly persecuted during <unk> 's reign . As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters , <unk> publicly <unk> that no <unk> would be put to death as long as he remained in office . He called an end to trials based on treason , released those who had been imprisoned under these charges , and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled . \n", ' All properties which had been confiscated by <unk> were returned to their respective families . <unk> also sought to involve the Senate in his government , but this was not entirely successful . He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors that were known and trusted , and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro @-@ <unk> faction of the Senate , he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least one conspiracy against his life . \n', ' Having been proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , <unk> had to introduce a number of measures to gain support among the Roman populace . As was custom by this time , a change of emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and money to the people and the army . Accordingly , a <unk> of 75 <unk> per head was bestowed upon the citizens , while the soldiers of the <unk> Guard received a <unk> which may have amounted to as much as 5000 <unk> per person . This was followed by a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most <unk> Romans . \n', ' To the poorest , <unk> granted <unk> of land worth up to 60 million <unk> . He <unk> parents and their children from a 5 % inheritance tax , and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5 % to their municipality to support the children of <unk> families ; <unk> schemes which were later expanded by Trajan , <unk> Pius , and Marcus Aurelius . Furthermore , numerous taxes were <unk> and privileges granted to Roman provinces . <unk> , he probably abolished the <unk> <unk> , the additional tax which all Jews throughout the Empire had to pay : some of his coins bear the legend <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( abolition of malicious prosecution regarding the Jewish tax ) . \n', " Before long , <unk> 's expenses strained the economy of Rome and , although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by <unk> , necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce <unk> . The most superfluous religious sacrifices , games and horse races were abolished , while new income was generated from <unk> 's former possessions , including the <unk> of ships , estates , and even furniture . Large amounts of money were obtained from <unk> 's silver and gold statues , and <unk> forbade that similar images be made in his honor . \n", " Because he reigned only briefly , <unk> 's public works were few , instead completing projects which had been initiated under <unk> rule . This included extensive repairs to the Roman road system and the expansion of the <unk> . The latter program was headed by the former consul <unk> Julius <unk> , who helped to put an end to abuses and later published a significant work on Rome 's water supply , De <unk> <unk> <unk> . The only major landmarks constructed under <unk> were a <unk> , known as the <unk> <unk> , and a small Imperial <unk> begun by <unk> , which linked the <unk> of Augustus to the Temple of Peace . Little remains , partly because the Via <unk> <unk> <unk> cuts across it . \n", '', ' = = = Crisis of succession = = = \n', '', " Despite <unk> 's measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people , support for <unk> remained strong in the army , which had called for his <unk> immediately after the assassination . In an attempt to appease the soldiers of the <unk> Guard , <unk> had dismissed their prefect Titus <unk> <unk> — one of the chief conspirators against <unk> — and replaced him with a former commander , <unk> <unk> . \n", " Likewise , the generous <unk> bestowed upon the soldiers following his accession was expected to swiftly silence any protests against the violent regime change . The <unk> considered these measures insufficient , however , and demanded the execution of <unk> 's assassins , which <unk> refused . Continued dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would ultimately lead to the <unk> crisis of <unk> 's reign . \n", " While the swift transfer of power following <unk> 's death had prevented a civil war from <unk> , <unk> 's position as an emperor soon proved too vulnerable , and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his authority . Upon his accession , he had ordered a halt to treason trials , but at the same time allowed the prosecution of <unk> by the Senate to continue . This measure led to chaos , as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies , leading the consul <unk> to famously remark that <unk> 's <unk> was ultimately <unk> to <unk> 's anarchy . Early in 97 , a conspiracy led by the senator <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> failed , but once again <unk> refused to put the conspirators to death , much to the disapproval of the Senate . \n", " The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear successor , made more pressing because of <unk> 's old age and sickness . He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives , who were unsuited for political office . A successor would have to be chosen from among the governors or generals in the Empire and it appears that , by 97 , <unk> was considering to adopt Marcus Cornelius <unk> <unk> <unk> , the powerful governor of Syria . This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular military commander Marcus <unk> <unk> , commonly known as Trajan , a general of the armies at the German frontier . \n", " In October 97 these tensions came to a head when the <unk> Guard , led by <unk> <unk> , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took <unk> hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for <unk> 's death and even giving a speech <unk> the rebellious <unk> . Titus <unk> <unk> and <unk> , <unk> 's former <unk> , were sought out and killed . <unk> was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair . \n", ' He realized that his position was no longer <unk> without the support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people . Shortly thereafter , he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but abdicated . Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the <unk> with <unk> in 98 : \n', " Contrary to the view here popularized by <unk> <unk> , however , <unk> had in fact little choice with regard to his successor . Faced with a major crisis , he desperately needed the support of a man who could restore his damaged reputation . The only candidate with sufficient military experience , <unk> ancestry , and connections was Trajan . Likewise , Edward <unk> 's assertion that <unk> <unk> established a tradition of succession through adoption among the Five Good <unk> has found little support among modern historians . \n", '', ' = = Death and legacy = = \n', '', ' On 1 January , 98 , at the start of his fourth <unk> , <unk> suffered a stroke during a private audience . Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of <unk> , on 28 January . He was deified by the Senate , and his ashes were laid to rest in the <unk> of Augustus . \n', " <unk> was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan , who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm . According to Pliny the Younger , Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of <unk> , yet no trace of it has ever been found ; nor was a commemorative series of coins for the <unk> <unk> issued until ten years after his death . According to <unk> <unk> , however , the Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against <unk> , <unk> <unk> , was ' dismissed ' upon Trajan 's accession . \n", " Due to the lack of written sources on this period , much of <unk> 's life has remained obscure . The most substantial surviving account of the reign of <unk> was written by the 3rd @-@ century historian <unk> <unk> . His Roman History , which spans nearly a millennium , from the arrival of <unk> in Italy until the year <unk> , was composed more than one hundred years after <unk> had died . Further details are added by an abridged biography from the <unk> de <unk> , a work alleged to have been authored by the 4th @-@ century historian Aurelius Victor . \n", ' A more comprehensive text , presumed to describe the life of <unk> in closer detail , is the <unk> , by the contemporary historian <unk> . The <unk> is an account of the history of Rome covering three decades from the suicide of emperor <unk> in 69 until the death of <unk> in 96 . Unfortunately , a substantial part of the work has been lost , with only the first five books covering the Year of the Four <unk> remaining . In the introduction to his biography of <unk> Julius <unk> however , <unk> speaks highly of <unk> , describing his reign as " the dawn of a most happy age , [ when ] <unk> Caesar blended things once <unk> , sovereignty and freedom " . \n', ' The surviving histories speak equally positively of <unk> \'s brief reign , although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies . Both <unk> <unk> and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and <unk> , with <unk> commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his heir . These views were later popularized by the 18th @-@ century historian Edward <unk> in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . <unk> considered <unk> the first of the Five Good <unk> , five successive rulers under whom the Roman Empire " was governed by absolute power , under the guidance of wisdom and virtue " from 96 until 180 . Nevertheless , even <unk> notes that , compared to his successors , <unk> may have lacked the necessary qualifications for a successful reign : \n', " Modern history has expanded upon this sentiment , characterizing <unk> as a well @-@ <unk> but weak and <unk> ruler . The Roman Senate enjoyed renewed liberties under his rule , but <unk> 's <unk> of the state finances and lack of authority over the army ultimately brought Rome near the edge of a significant crisis . The mutiny led by <unk> <unk> was never intended as a coup , but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor . The adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected , reliable general as his successor . <unk> concludes that <unk> 's real talents were in fact ill @-@ suited to the <unk> : \n", ' His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary , if tumultuous stop @-@ gap before the <unk> @-@ <unk> dynasties . It is a fact of irony that even the only major public work completed during his reign , the <unk> of <unk> , ultimately became known as the <unk> <unk> , or transitional forum . \n', ' Two modern statues which commemorate <unk> can be found in towns associated with him . There is an <unk> statue in Gloucester , England , a town which was founded in his honour . It is at the entrance to <unk> Street . There is also a statue at his alleged birthplace , <unk> in Italy , at <unk> <unk> street . \n', '', ' = = <unk> – <unk> family tree = = \n', '', '', ' = = In popular culture = = \n', '', ' <unk> was played by Norman <unk> in the 1951 film <unk> <unk> . \n', ' He was also played by <unk> Gemma in the 1964 film <unk> of the <unk> . \n', '', ' = = = Secondary material = = = \n', '', " <unk> web links , International links ' , International links from <unk> web site \n", ' <unk> , David ( 1998 ) . " <unk> ( 96 – 98 <unk> ) " . De <unk> <unk> . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 08 @-@ 11 . \n', ' Pelham , Henry Francis ( 1911 ) . " <unk> , Marcus <unk> " . In Chisholm , Hugh . <unk> Britannica 19 ( 11th ed . ) . Cambridge University <unk> pp. 393 – 394 . \n', '', ' = The <unk> ( film ) = \n', '', ' The <unk> is a 1961 American drama film directed by Robert <unk> from Walter <unk> \'s 1959 novel of the same name , adapted for the screen by <unk> and Sidney Carroll . It tells the story of small @-@ time pool <unk> " Fast Eddie " <unk> and his desire to break into the " major league " of professional <unk> and high @-@ stakes <unk> by high @-@ <unk> that follows it . He throws his raw talent and ambition up against the best player in the country ; seeking to best the legendary pool player " Minnesota <unk> . " After initially losing to <unk> and getting involved with <unk> manager Bert Gordon , Eddie returns to try again , but only after paying a terrible personal price . \n', ' The film was shot on location in New York City . It stars Paul Newman as " Fast " Eddie <unk> , Jackie Gleason as Minnesota <unk> , Piper Laurie as Sarah , and George C. Scott as Bert . \n', ' The <unk> was a major critical and popular success , gaining a reputation as a modern classic . Its exploration of winning , losing , and character garnered a number of major awards ; it is also credited with helping to spark a resurgence in the popularity of pool . Real @-@ life pool player Rudolf <unk> , known at the time as " New York <unk> " and " Chicago <unk> " , claimed to be the real life inspiration for Gleason \'s character , Minnesota <unk> , and adopted the name as his own . \n', '', ' = = Plot = = \n', '', ' Small @-@ time pool <unk> " Fast Eddie " <unk> travels cross @-@ country with his partner Charlie to challenge the legendary player " Minnesota <unk> " . Arriving at <unk> \' home pool hall , Eddie declares he will win $ 10 @,@ 000 that night . <unk> arrives and he and Eddie agree to play straight pool for $ 200 a game . After initially falling behind , Eddie <unk> back to being $ 1 @,@ 000 ahead and suggests raising the bet to $ 1 @,@ 000 a game ; <unk> agrees . He sends out a runner , Preacher , to Johnny \'s Bar , ostensibly for whiskey , but really to get professional <unk> Bert Gordon to the hall . Eddie gets ahead $ 11 @,@ 000 and Charlie tries to convince him to quit , but Eddie insists the game will end only when <unk> says it is over . <unk> agrees to continue after Bert labels Eddie a " loser . " After 25 hours and an entire bottle of <unk> , Eddie is ahead over $ 18 @,@ 000 , but loses it all along with all but $ 200 of his original stake . At their hotel later , Eddie leaves half of the remaining stake with a sleeping Charlie and leaves . \n', ' Eddie <unk> his belongings at the local bus terminal , where he meets Sarah <unk> , an alcoholic who is supported by her father , attends college part @-@ time , and walks with a limp . He meets her again at a bar . They go back to her place but she refuses to let him in , saying he is " too hungry " . Eddie moves into a <unk> house and starts <unk> for small stakes . He finds Sarah again and this time she takes him in , but with reservations . Charlie finds Eddie at Sarah \'s and tries to persuade him to go back out on the road . Eddie refuses and Charlie realizes he plans to challenge <unk> again . Eddie realizes that Charlie held out his percentage and becomes enraged , believing that with that money he could have rebounded to beat <unk> . Eddie dismisses Charlie as a scared old man and tells him to " go lie down and die " by himself . \n', ' At Johnny \'s Bar , Eddie joins a poker game where Bert is playing , and loses $ 20 . Afterward , Bert tells Eddie that he has talent as a pool player but no character . He figures that Eddie will need at least $ 3 @,@ 000 to challenge <unk> again . Bert calls him a " born loser " but nevertheless offers to stake him in return for 75 % of his <unk> ; Eddie refuses . \n', ' Eddie <unk> a local pool shark , exposing himself as a <unk> , and the other players punish him by breaking his <unk> . As he <unk> , Sarah cares for him and tells him she loves him , but he cannot say the words in return . When Eddie is ready to play , he agrees to Bert \'s terms , deciding that a " 25 % slice of something big is better than a 100 % slice of nothing " . \n', ' Bert , Eddie , and Sarah travel to the Kentucky Derby , where Bert <unk> a match for Eddie against a wealthy local <unk> named <unk> . The game turns out to be <unk> <unk> , not pool . When Eddie loses badly , Bert refuses to keep <unk> him . Sarah pleads with Eddie to leave with her , saying that the world he is living in and its inhabitants are " <unk> , twisted , and crippled " ; he refuses . Seeing Eddie \'s anger , Bert agrees to let the match continue at $ 1 @,@ 000 a game . Eddie comes back to win $ 12 @,@ 000 . He collects his $ 3 @,@ 000 share and decides to walk back to the hotel . Bert arrives first and subjects Sarah to a humiliating sexual encounter . After , she <unk> " <unk> " , " <unk> " , and " <unk> " in lipstick on the bathroom mirror . Eddie arrives back at the hotel to learn that she has killed herself . \n', " Eddie returns to challenge <unk> again , putting up his entire $ 3 @,@ 000 stake on a single game . He wins game after game , beating <unk> so badly that <unk> is forced to quit . Bert demands a share of Eddie 's <unk> and threatens that Eddie will be injured unless he pays . But Eddie says that if he is not killed he will kill Bert when he recovers ; invoking the memory of Sarah , he <unk> Bert into giving up his claim . Instead , Bert orders Eddie never to walk into a big @-@ time pool hall again . Eddie and <unk> compliment each other as players , and Eddie walks out . \n", '', ' = = Cast = = \n', '', ' Cast notes \n', " Pool champion Willie <unk> has a cameo appearance as Willie , who holds the stakes for Eddie and <unk> 's games . <unk> 's hands also appear in many of the <unk> shots . \n", '', ' = = Production = = \n', '', " The <unk> novel had been optioned several times , including by Frank Sinatra , but attempts to adapt it for the screen were unsuccessful . Director <unk> 's daughter Carol <unk> speculates that previous adaptations focused too much on the pool aspects of the story and not enough on the human interaction . <unk> , who had <unk> pool himself as a youth and who had made an abortive attempt to write a pool @-@ themed play called Corner Pocket , optioned the book and teamed with Sidney Carroll to produce the script . \n", " According to Bobby <unk> 's agent , Martin Baum , Paul Newman 's agent turned down the part of Fast Eddie . Newman was originally unavailable to play Fast Eddie regardless , being committed to star opposite Elizabeth Taylor in the film Two for the <unk> . <unk> offered <unk> the part after seeing him on The Mike Wallace Interview . When Taylor was forced to drop out of <unk> because of shooting <unk> on Cleopatra , Newman was freed up to take the role , which he accepted after reading just half of the script . No one associated with the production officially notified <unk> or his representatives that he had been replaced ; they found out from a member of the public at a charity horse race . \n", ' <unk> filmed The <unk> over six weeks , entirely in New York City . Much of the action was filmed at two now @-@ defunct pool halls , <unk> \'s and Ames <unk> Academy . Other shooting locations included a <unk> on East 82nd Street , which served as the Louisville home of Murray Hamilton \'s character <unk> , and the Manhattan <unk> bus terminal . The film crew built a dining area that was so realistic that confused passengers sat there and waited to place their orders . Willie <unk> served as technical advisor on the film and shot a number of the trick shots in place of the actors . All of Gleason \'s shots were his own ; they were filmed in wide @-@ angle to emphasize having the actor and the shot in the same frames . <unk> , in pursuit of the style he termed " neo @-@ neo @-@ realistic " , hired actual street thugs , enrolled them in the Screen Actors Guild and used them as extras . Scenes that were included in the shooting script but did not make it into the final film include a scene at Ames pool hall establishing that Eddie is on his way to town ( originally slated to be the first scene of the film ) and a longer scene of Preacher talking to Bert at Johnny \'s Bar which establishes Preacher is a <unk> . \n', " Early shooting put more focus on the pool playing , but during filming <unk> made the decision to place more emphasis on the love story between Newman and Laurie 's characters . Despite the change in emphasis , <unk> still used the various pool games to show the strengthening of Eddie 's character and the evolution of his relationship to Bert and Sarah , through the positioning of the characters in the frame . For example , when Eddie is playing <unk> , Eddie is positioned below Bert in a two shot but above <unk> while still below Bert in a three shot . When Sarah enters the room , she is below Eddie in two shot while in a three shot Eddie is still below Bert . When Eddie is kneeling over Sarah 's body , Bert again appears above him but Eddie attacks Bert , ending up on top of him . Eddie finally appears above Bert in two shot when Eddie returns to beat <unk> . \n", '', ' = = Themes = = \n', '', ' The <unk> is fundamentally a story of what it means to be a human being , <unk> within the context of winning and losing . Describing the film , Robert <unk> said : " My protagonist , Fast Eddie , wants to become a great pool player , but the film is really about the obstacles he encounters in attempting to fulfill himself as a human being . He <unk> self @-@ awareness only after a terrible personal tragedy which he has caused — and then he wins his pool game . " Roger <unk> <unk> with this assessment , citing The <unk> as " one of the few American movies in which the hero wins by surrendering , by accepting reality instead of his dreams . " \n', " The film was also somewhat autobiographical for <unk> , relating to his dealings with the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . A screenwriter during the 1930s and ' 40s , he had been involved with the Communist Party in the 1930s and refused to name names at his first <unk> appearance . Ultimately he changed his mind and identified friends and colleagues as party members . Similarly , <unk> sells his soul and betrays the one person who really knows and loves him in a <unk> pact to gain character . \n", ' Film and theatre historian <unk> <unk> has identified The <unk> as one of a handful of films from the early 1960s that re @-@ defined the relationship of films to their audiences . This new relationship , he writes , is " one of challenge rather than <unk> , of doubt rather than certainty . " No film of the 1950s , <unk> asserts , " took such a brutal , clear look at the ego @-@ affirmation of the one @-@ on @-@ one contest , at the <unk> of the winner or the <unk> vulnerability of the loser . " Although some have suggested the resemblance of this film to classic film noir , <unk> rejects the comparison based on <unk> \'s ultra @-@ realistic style , also noting that the film lacks noir \'s " <unk> Woman or its <unk> in discovering crime among the <unk> , hungry bank clerks and <unk> wives . " <unk> does note that while Fast Eddie " has a slight fifties ring " , the character " makes a decisive break with the extraordinarily feeling tough guys of the \' rebel \' era ... [ b ] <unk> he does end up seeking out his emotions " and telling Bert that he is a loser because he \'s dead inside . \n', '', ' = = Reception = = \n', '', " The <unk> had its world premiere in Washington , D.C. on September 25 , 1961 . Prior to the premiere , Richard Burton hosted a midnight screening of the film for the casts of the season 's Broadway shows , which generated a great deal of positive word of mouth . Initially reluctant to publicize the film , 20th Century Fox responded by stepping up its promotional activities . \n", ' The film was well received by critics , although with the occasional <unk> . Variety praised the performances of the entire main cast but felt that the " <unk> aspects " of the story prevented the film from achieving the " goal of being pure entertainment . " Variety also felt the film was far too long . Stanley <unk> , writing for The New Republic , concurred in part with this assessment . <unk> strongly praised the principal cast , calling Newman " first @-@ rate " and writing that Scott \'s was " his most credible performance to date . " Laurie , he writes , gives her part " <unk> <unk> touches " ( although he also <unk> criticizes her for over @-@ reliance on Method acting ) . While he found that the script " strains hard to give an air of menace and <unk> to the pool hall " and also declares it " full of pseudo @-@ meaning " , <unk> <unk> <unk> \'s " sure , economical " direction , especially in regard to Gleason who , he says , does not so much act as " [ pose ] for a number of pictures which are well arranged by <unk> . It is the best use of a <unk> by a director since <unk> photographed <unk> <unk> as Big Daddy . " The New York Times , despite finding that the film " <unk> a bit " and that the romance between Newman and Laurie \'s characters " seems a <unk> far @-@ <unk> " , nonetheless found that The <unk> " speaks powerfully in a universal language that <unk> and reveals bitter truths . " \n', ' The <unk> received nine Academy Award nominations . The film won two , for Best Art Direction @-@ Set Decoration , Black @-@ and @-@ White ( Harry Horner and Gene <unk> ) and Best <unk> , Black @-@ and @-@ White ( <unk> <unk> ) . The film was also nominated for Best Picture and Newman was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role . Gleason and Scott were both nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ; Scott refused the nomination . Laurie was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role . <unk> received nominations for Best Director and , with Carroll , for Best Writing , Screenplay Based on Material from Another <unk> . \n', " Newman was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor . Gleason and Scott were each nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Scott was also nominated as Best New Star of the Year . At the 1962 BAFTA Awards , The <unk> tied with the Soviet film Ballad of a Soldier for Best Film from Any Source . Newman won for Best Foreign Actor and Piper Laurie was nominated for Best Foreign Actress . Gleason was honored as Best Supporting Actor by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures and the film was named among the Board 's ten best films of 1961 . <unk> was named Best Director by the New York Film Critics Circle Awards and <unk> and Carroll shared the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Drama . \n", ' American Film Institute <unk> \n', " <unk> 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies - <unk> \n", " <unk> 's 100 Years ... 100 <unk> - <unk> \n", " <unk> 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and <unk> : \n", ' Bert Gordon - <unk> <unk> \n', " <unk> 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie <unk> : \n", ' " Eddie , you \'re a born loser . " - <unk> \n', " <unk> 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th <unk> Edition ) - <unk> \n", " <unk> 's 10 Top 10 - # 6 Sports Film \n", '', ' = = Legacy = = \n', '', ' In the decades since its release , The <unk> has cemented its reputation as a classic . Roger <unk> , echoing earlier praise for the performances , direction , and cinematography and adding <unk> for editor <unk> Allen , cites the film as " one of those films where scenes have such psychic weight that they grow in our memories . " He further cites Fast Eddie <unk> as one of " only a handful of movie characters so real that the audience refers to them as <unk> . " TV Guide calls the film a " dark <unk> " offering " a <unk> world whose only bright spot is the top of the pool table , yet [ with ] characters [ who ] maintain a <unk> nobility and grace . " The four leads are again lavishly praised for their performances and the film is summed up as " not to be missed . " \n', ' Paul Newman reprised his role as Fast Eddie <unk> in the 1986 film The Color of Money , for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . A number of observers and critics have suggested that this Oscar was in <unk> recognition for his performance in The <unk> . In 1997 , the Library of Congress selected The <unk> for preservation in the United States National Film <unk> as " culturally , historically , or <unk> significant . " Carroll and <unk> \'s screenplay was selected by the Writers Guild of America in 2006 as the <unk> best motion picture screenplay of all time . In June 2008 , <unk> released its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . The <unk> was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the sports genre . \n', ' The <unk> is credited with sparking a resurgence in the popularity of pool in the United States , which had been on the decline for decades . The film also brought recognition to Willie <unk> , who , despite having won multiple world championships , was virtually unknown to the general public . Perhaps the greatest <unk> of the film \'s popularity was a real @-@ life pool <unk> named Rudolf <unk> . <unk> claimed in an interview at the time of the film \'s release that the character of Minnesota <unk> was based on <unk> , who at the time was known as " New York <unk> " . <unk> immediately adopted the Minnesota <unk> nickname and <unk> his association with the film into book and television deals and other ventures . Author Walter <unk> denied for the rest of his life that <unk> had played any role in the creation of the character . Other players would claim , with greater or lesser degrees of credibility , to have served as models for Fast Eddie , including Ronnie Allen , Ed Taylor , Ed Parker , and Eddie <unk> . \n', '']